The existence of this dimension singularly demonstrates why Mediation is always appropriate.

‘… [T]he “human dimension” of cultural heritage – i.e. the special feelings that items of cultural heritage evoke in individuals and peoples because of their symbolic, emotional, religious, and historical qualities – can be overlooked in the course of the adjudicative process. This human dimension is at stake in all cases, whether involving artworks taken by force or deceit or not … [C]ultural objects have no intrinsic value, in the sense that they cannot be defined solely by their physical characteristics. The values ascribed to them- be they historic, scientific, educational, aesthetic, or financial depend on the meanings placed upon them by individuals and communities. It is precisely because of these meanings that works of art and antiquities attract the interest of museum-goers, institutions, States, and other stakeholders. For some, cultural objects are repositories of information relating to human history. Others regard them as possessing or expressing religious or spiritual qualities. For others, cultural objects are chattels that can be treated as any other commodity in financial terms. Heritage’s value is therefore relational. This explains why disputes involving cultural objects are both more likely to arise and more difficult to resolve than in the case of mundane goods.’

(The Settlement of International Cultural Heritage Disputes by Alessandro Chechi (2014), p.2.)

AI – ‘Yes, abundant fossils of trees and plants, including abundant fossilized wood and leaves, have been discovered in Antarctica, providing evidence of extensive ancient forests and a much warmer climate in the distant past. These plant fossils offer insights into the continent’s prehistoric ecosystems, evolutionary changes, and past climates, which were vastly different from the icy desert Antarctica is today. Key discoveries and evidence:

• Fossil leaves and wood:These are the most common plant fossils found and indicate the existence of widespread forests in earlier geological periods, even near the South Pole. 
• Sedimentary cores:Scientists have drilled into the seabed and found fossil roots, pollen, spores, and remnants of flowering plants, which point to temperate rainforests in West Antarctica about 90 million years ago. 
• Fossil forests:Researchers have found and studied entire fossil forests from the Permian Period (around 280 million years ago), which are unique in their ability to have survived the extreme conditions of constant light and darkness at the poles. 
• Tree rings:Examining the annual rings in fossilized logs, like those found by Robert Falcon Scott in 1912, provides information about the trees’ growth and the past climate. 

What the fossils tell us:

• Ancient climates:The presence of these fossils indicates that Antarctica was once a temperate and much warmer place than it is today. 
• Adaptation to polar conditions:Scientists study these fossils to understand how plants adapted to the long periods of daylight and darkness at the poles. 
• Continental movements:The distribution of these plant fossils contributes to our understanding of how the continents have moved over millions of years.’

AI – ‘Yes, similar geometric patterns, particularly the meander or Greek key, appear in both ancient Roman mosaics and the design arrangement of megalithic structures, sometimes linked to sacred geometry and shared cosmological ideas or practical construction methods. For example, a simple algorithm could construct intricate meander patterns found in both Roman pavement mosaics and ancient art from other cultures, such as Angola and South India. Some scholars suggest that the use of these patterns in both art forms reflects a shared ancient understanding of the cosmos, while others point to the mobility of artisans and the circulation of pattern books as reasons for their prevalence.
 

Mosaics and Patterns

• Geometric Patterns:

Ancient mosaics, particularly Greek and Roman ones, often featured geometric designs like the meander (Greek key), the guilloché (interlacing strands), and the swastika. 

• Symbolic Meaning:

Geometric patterns in mosaics could be purely decorative or hold symbolic or spiritual meaning, sometimes conveying cosmological ideas. 

• Diffusion:

The recurring nature of these designs in the Roman world can be attributed to the movement of skilled craftsmen and the use of pattern books, which helped spread designs widely. 

Megalithic Structures and Patterns

• Sacred Geometry:

Some theories propose that megalithic structures incorporate patterns based on sacred geometry, where certain proportions and forms are given cosmic or spiritual significance. 

• Cross-Cultural Similarities:

The recurrence of specific geometric patterns in megalithic sites across different cultures suggests a potential shared understanding of fundamental principles or a common, albeit rudimentary, algorithmic approach to their creation. 

Connecting Mosaics and Megaliths 

• Shared Motifs:

The recurring geometric patterns found in mosaics can have parallels with the design arrangement and masonry of some megalithic structures, suggesting a common thread in ancient design principles.

• Practicality and Spirituality:

The same patterns might have emerged from both practical (like using simple construction methods) and spiritual motivations (like encoding cosmological ideas or a sense of order into monumental architecture).’

AI – ‘Yes, it’s widely believed by some that messages are encoded in the design and masonry of ancient megalithic structures, particularly through the principles of sacred geometry. This system of geometry, where proportions and forms are given spiritual or cosmic significance, was used by many ancient cultures to express cosmological ideas. While not all cultures universally shared these principles, the recurrence of certain patterns across diverse civilizations suggests a shared understanding of the cosmos and a desire to encode these ideas into their monumental architecture. 

How messages were encoded:

• Sacred Geometry:

Specific geometric ratios and shapes were believed to possess intrinsic spiritual or cosmic significance. These were incorporated into architectural designs to convey profound spiritual or cosmological meanings. 

• Cosmological and Astronomical Alignment:

The arrangement of stones in structures like stone circles was likely for ritual or astronomical purposes, possibly acting as a form of “map to the stars” to help understand the cosmos. 

• Material and Craftsmanship:

The sheer scale and precise craftsmanship of megalithic structures also communicate messages about the ingenuity and engineering prowess of ancient builders. The intricate and monumental nature of the masonry itself can be seen as a testament to their advanced techniques, sparking curiosity about their knowledge and capabilities, as noted in studies by the Taylor & Francis Online and Facebook posts about Çavuştepe. 

Examples of encoded meaning:

• Mandalas and Pyramids:

In India, the Himalayas, and ancient Egypt, the design principles of sacred geometry were applied to designs and pyramids to convey spiritual and cosmological ideas, according to wealthplanning.tv. 

• Shared Cultural Significance:

Similarities in the architectural features of megalithic structures found in geographically separated regions, like India and the Caucasus, suggest a shared cultural significance or parallel development of ideas and practices, according to a Facebook post.’

AI – ‘Yes, ancient mosaics often contain encoded messages through inscriptions, symbolism, religious narratives, and political statements, functioning as a form of visual language that communicates beliefs, historical events, and social values. While some messages are explicit, such as the names of the artists or patrons, others are hidden within the imagery, using symbols or apotropaic (evil-warding) designs to convey complex ideas or beliefs to those who understood the cultural context.
 

Types of Encoded Messages

• Inscriptions:

Many mosaics include direct inscriptions with the names of the patrons, the artists, or even descriptions of the work’s creation. 

• Symbolism and Narrative:

Mosaics frequently depict scenes from myths, religious texts, or historical events, which served as visual storytelling to convey moral lessons and religious beliefs. 

• Social and Political Messages:

Depictions of rulers, elite individuals, or public events could convey power, social status, and reinforce political agendas. 

• Apotropaic Functions:

Mosaics sometimes included images or symbols designed to ward off evil spirits or the “evil eye,” such as depictions of an eye pierced by a lance or mythological figures with prominent phalli. 

Examples of Encoded Messages

• Artist Signatures:

A mosaic from Thebes (6th century AD) named Demetrios as the designer and Epiphanes as the artist who executed it. 

• Patronal Pride:

A third-century AD mosaic in Vlisippara, Tunisia, showcased the creator Sabinianus’s pride in his work, despite the poor quality. 

• Religious Beliefs:

Byzantine mosaics often featured biblical stories and figures to reinforce Christian faith. 

• Power and Wealth:

The Great Hunt mosaic at Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily illustrates the power and wealth of the Roman elite through its depiction of exotic beast hunts. 

How Messages Are Decoded

• Visual Analysis:

Analyzing the visual elements, symbols, and narratives within the mosaics provides insights into the culture that created them. 

• Contextual Understanding:

The context of the mosaic, such as the location of the villa or the religious building, helps to interpret its intended meaning. 

• Cultural Knowledge:

Understanding the specific cultural, religious, and mythological references used in the mosaic is essential for decoding its deeper meaning.’ 

AI – ‘Egypt features prominent structures like the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx, while Ethiopia is known for the Tiya Stelae and other megalithic sites with stelae and dolmens. Yemen contains megalithic structures from the ancient kingdoms of Saba and Himyar, though specific site names are not detailed in these results. In Korea and Japan, megalithic sites include stone circles, dolmens, and tumuli from the Jomon and Jomon-like cultures. Peru is home to the massive Sacsayhuaman fortress and other Inca sites with huge stone walls.
 

Egypt 

• Pyramids of Giza and Sphinx:

Iconic and massive stone structures primarily built as tombs for pharaohs and a monument to a mythical creature.

• Temples:

Large stone temples, such as the Karnak Temple Complex and Luxor Temple, exhibit impressive megalithic architecture.

Ethiopia 

• Tiya Stelae:

A UNESCO World Heritage Site featuring megalithic stelae (standing stones), tumuli (burial mounds), and dolmens (stone burial chambers) dating to the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age, according to Testbook.

• Omo Valley Stone Platforms:

Associated with the Bodi peoples, these stone platforms were likely connected to ritual activities, indicating a strong tradition of megalithic construction.

Yemen 

• Sabaean and Himyarite Ruins:

Ancient kingdoms like Saba and Himyar left behind significant megalithic structures.

• Marib Dam and Ma’rib Dam:

An ancient dam that used megalithic construction techniques, demonstrating advanced engineering in the region.

Korea 

• Dolmen Sites:

Korea has many dolmen sites, with one of the largest being the Damyang dolmen site.

• Stone Circles:

Found across the country, particularly in the Jomon culture, these are large arrangements of stones that were likely used for ritual or astronomical purposes.

Japan 

• Tomb Mounds:

The extensive tumuli (burial mounds) of the Kofun period, like the Tomb of Emperor Nintoku, are large megalithic structures.

• Jomon Stone Circles:

Prehistoric Jomon people constructed various stone circles, some of which are found on the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu.

Peru 

• Sacsayhuamán:

A fortress on the outskirts of the city of Cusco built with massive, interlocking stones.

• Machu Picchu:

The ancient Inca city, with its walls and buildings, showcases incredible megalithic masonry, where stones are fitted perfectly without the use of mortar.

• Ollantaytambo:

An important Inca site with formidable stone walls and terraces built from enormous megaliths.’

See also:

• Yemen’s Ancient Megalithic Mysteries Part 1 – Timna’s Cyclopean Architecture: Yemen’s Ancient Megalithic Mysteries Part 1 – Timna’s Cyclopean Architecture
• Yemen’s Hidden Megaliths: Baraqish, Awwam, Barran, and the Old Marib Dam: Yemen’s Hidden Megaliths: Baraqish, Awwam, Barran, and the Old Marib Dam
• Uncovering Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 1: The Mysteries of Axum: Uncovering Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 1: The Mysteries of Axum
• Uncovering Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 2: Pre-Axumite Temples and Connections to Yemen: Uncovering Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 2: Pre-Axumite Temples and Connections to Yemen
• Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 3: Lalibela’s Rock-Hewn Churches & Mysterious Standing Stelae: Ethiopia’s Ancient Megaliths Part 3: Lalibela’s Rock-Hewn Churches & Mysterious Standing Stelae
• Secrets in Stone: Secrets in Stone – YouTube

I have spent the entire summer carrying out research for my next book – ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’, and am on schedule to complete my in-depth reading of the Research Handbook On Intellectual Property and Cultural Heritage (2022) edited by Irini Stamatoudi, in two days time.

While the book was not written for Mediators, it has sparked new and creative ‘win/win’ ideas in my mind, for both Mediation and Mediation Advocacy in Cultural Heritage Disputes – which almost uniquely, take place within the shared space of overlapping Public International Law and Private Law dimensions.

That essentially leaves two more books to read in-depth in September:

·       The Settlement Of International Cultural Heritage Disputes (2014) by Alessandro Chechi; and
·       China, Cultural Heritage, And International Law (2018) by Hui Zhong,

So, by the end of September, I will have completed my 1st in-depth ‘reading run’ of nearly all of the ‘core’ titles for the book, that are listed in the Research Bibliography on the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’ page at www.carlislam.co.uk.

Then I can start putting pen to paper in October.

In parallel, I will carry out two more reading runs of the entire research material, as the draft of the book progresses, and I have already assembled my first outline draft of the book, i.e. as the anatomical skeleton of the book.

Meanwhile, I am going offline until my next online talk to the SCMA on 11 November 2025 – ‘Mediation of International Cultural Heritage Disputes – Part 1: Introduction & Overview.’

For more information about the book, please visit the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’ page at www.carlislam.co.uk, which contains the current Chapter Structure.

AI – ‘Yes, ancient art encodes a significant geopolitical legacy for mankind. Far from being simple decorations, these visual messages communicate beliefs, social hierarchies, and power structures that define geopolitical realities.

While not always explicit like a modern political map, the narratives in ancient art provided the foundational context for how people understood their place in the world and their relationship to other societies. 

This is evident in several aspects of ancient art:

• Political propaganda: Ancient rulers and elites used art to reinforce their status and authority. Through idealized portraits and depictions of military victories, they communicated a specific political message to their subjects and rivals. For example, Roman victory arches and Egyptian tomb paintings celebrated military conquests and reinforced imperial power.
• Geographical and territorial claims: The art of ancient cultures could be used to make claims about their ancient ethnic origins and contested territories, especially as foundational stories for modern nation-states. For instance, a 19th-century Liebig trading card series on French history depicted the Gallic leader Vercingetorix’s defeat by the Romans as a foundational national episode, associating the modern state with ancient inhabitants and their land.
• Cultural dominance and international relations: Ancient art was not static. The movement of artifacts, whether through trade, plunder, or diplomacy, played a role in international relations. The display of certain artifacts in foreign capitals was an assertion of modernity or a tool for diplomacy. For example, the traveling exhibition of Tutankhamun’s artifacts during the Cold War was a powerful statement of Egyptian modernity.
• Encapsulation of social values and conflict: Art can reveal how societies conceptualized war, peace, and their relationships with outsiders. For example, ancient depictions of peace as a female figure, or war as a normal state of being, influenced how real-world conflicts were handled. Studying these representations offers insights into the “win-lose conceptualizations” of ancient geopolitical dynamics.
• Coded communication: Ancient art, particularly in tombs, sometimes used symbols to encode hidden messages, such as military strategies or political secrets. This reveals a deep and complex level of geopolitical thought beyond surface-level representations. Artificial intelligence is now being used to decode such ancient symbols, offering new insights into historical politics.
• The landscape as a geopolitical text: Ancient cultures often attached specific meanings to landscapes, which were then reinforced through visual art. This helped to shape national identities and the geopolitical self-perception of a people. This “geopolitical gaze” used art to define territory and a people’s place within it.’

My Q. – ‘What coded communications in Ancient Art e.g. symbols has AI decoded?’

AI – ‘AI is used to decode ancient texts and symbols by recognizing patterns, restoring damaged inscriptions, and assisting scholars in translating lost languages, with successful applications in ancient Cuneiform, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, and Latin. AI-powered tools like ProtoSnap and Fabricius identify and reconstruct symbols, while projects like Google’s Aeneas help scholars restore missing Latin words in inscriptions, expanding our knowledge of ancient history.  

Cuneiform 

• What it is:

The world’s oldest known writing system, featuring wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets.

• AI’s role:

Projects like ProtoSnap use AI to recognize and reconstruct cuneiform characters with high accuracy, even accounting for stylistic variations. This speeds up the translation of the vast number of digitized cuneiform tablets, expanding our understanding of ancient Mesopotamia.

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs 

• What it is: A complex writing system of symbols and images used in ancient Egypt.
• AI’s role: The abricius program employs machine learning to assist researchers in decoding hieroglyphs. Users can upload photos, create digital layers, and the program can suggest potential translations, making the process more accessible.

Latin Inscriptions 

• What it is:

Ancient inscriptions written in the Latin language, often found on stones and monuments.

• AI’s role:

AI models like Aeneas are trained to compare new inscriptions with thousands of known examples. This allows the AI to suggest reconstructions of missing words, assign texts to historical provinces, and even estimate dates, offering valuable insights to historians.

How AI Works in Decipherment

• Pattern Recognition:

AI, particularly through machine learning, excels at recognizing complex patterns in images, which is crucial for identifying and interpreting ancient symbols. 

• Data-Driven:

By analyzing vast datasets of digitized texts, AI learns the relationships between different characters and sequences, helping to reconstruct broken or faded writing. 

• Augmenting Human Expertise:

AI tools like Fabricius and Aeneas are designed to support, not replace, human experts. They provide powerful assistance, enabling scholars to work more efficiently and make new discoveries.’ 

AI – ‘Ancient art left an esoteric legacy by encoding spiritual and mystical knowledge in its symbols, geometry, and imagery, with meanings often accessible only to the initiated. Instead of being merely decorative, art in ancient cultures served as a vessel for complex concepts about creation, divinity, and transformation. 

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian art is a primary example of this esoteric tradition, where art and architecture served to communicate profound, hidden knowledge. 

• Symbolic imagery: Hieroglyphs were not just a form of writing but also powerful symbols believed to convey and invoke magical powers. For the initiated, they had multiple layers of meaning.
• Funerary art: The elaborate art found in tombs and on sarcophagi was part of a secret, complex system of beliefs about the journey to the afterlife. These images served as a guide for the deceased through the underworld, ensuring their rebirth.
• Ritualistic purpose: Temple art and adornments were functional components of rituals. By performing rites in a sacred space filled with symbolic art, priests and the initiated sought to interact with the divine. 

Ancient Greece

The esoteric legacy of Greek art and philosophy was primarily transmitted through mystery schools and hermetic traditions. 

• Pythagoreanism and Platonism: These schools of thought influenced artistic expression through a focus on divine mathematical and geometric principles. The harmony and ideal proportions seen in Greek art, architecture, and sculpture were considered reflections of a deeper, hidden reality.
• Mythology: Greek mythology, though seemingly a collection of stories, held encoded philosophical truths and allegories about humanity’s relationship with the divine. These myths were represented visually in art, where their symbolic nature could be contemplated. 

Other traditions

Similar esoteric legacies exist in other ancient cultures, from Eastern philosophies to the art of Indigenous peoples. 

• Eastern traditions: Esoteric Buddhism in East Asia, for example, used art as a necessary component for spiritual and worldly goals. Mandalas and thangkas in Tibet and the Himalayas depicted intricate cosmic diagrams used for meditation and visualization.
• Indigenous Australian art: In Queensland, rock art dating back tens of thousands of years depicts spirit beings, revealing the mystical beliefs that shaped early Indigenous societies. The elongated, ethereal figures are a visual link to their stories and connection to the spiritual world. 

Enduring influence

The esoteric traditions of ancient art have had a lasting impact, influencing later mystical movements and contemporary art. 

• Renaissance and Western esotericism: The Renaissance saw a revival of interest in hermeticism, alchemy, and Kabbalah, which influenced artists who sought to encode secret knowledge into their work.
• Modern art movements: Occult and esoteric themes influenced modern artists like Wassily Kandinsky, who believed art could access otherworldly realms. More recent movements have incorporated esoteric themes to explore contemporary issues related to environmentalism, gender, and digital culture.
• Modern media and culture: Today, esoteric art, imagery, and symbolism are frequently repurposed in popular media, including film, literature, and music videos. In this way, ancient esoteric traditions continue to evolve and influence contemporary cultural expression.’

AI – ‘The sacred Benben stone was a primordial mound, or a stone shaped like a cone or short obelisk, in ancient Egyptian mythology that represented the first land to emerge from the chaos waters during creation. Located in the temple of Ra at Heliopolis, it was where the first rays of the sun fell. The Benben symbolized the sun god Ra, the Bennu bird (a precursor to the phoenix), and served as the architectural prototype for the pyramidions (capstones) of later pyramids and obelisks.

Symbolism and Meaning

• Primordial Mound:The Benben was the foundation for creation, the first piece of dry land to appear from the primeval waters (Nu). 
• Sun God Ra:It was closely associated with Ra, the sun god, representing the first place the sun’s rays touched each morning. 
• Bennu Bird and Phoenix:The mythical Bennu bird was said to live on the Benben stone, a connection that may have inspired the concept of the phoenix. 
• Cycle of Life and Renewal:The Bennu bird and the sun’s cyclical appearance linked the Benben to the concepts of rebirth and the renewal of life. 

Architectural Significance 

• Prototype for Pyramids and Obelisks:The Benben served as the original model for the pyramidions that capped the summits of later Egyptian pyramids and for obelisks.
• Temple of the Benben:The sacred stone was housed in a shrine called the “House of the Benben” within the temple precinct at Heliopolis.

Lost but Preserved

• Lost Original:The original Benben stone is lost, but its concept is reflected in the pyramidions found on many pyramids, including the Pyramid of Amenemhat III, one of which is housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. 
• Possible Meteorite:Some theories suggest the original Benben stone might have been a meteorite.’