I have spent the entire summer carrying out research for my next book – ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’, and am on schedule to complete my in-depth reading of the Research Handbook On Intellectual Property and Cultural Heritage (2022) edited by Irini Stamatoudi, in two days time.

While the book was not written for Mediators, it has sparked new and creative ‘win/win’ ideas in my mind, for both Mediation and Mediation Advocacy in Cultural Heritage Disputes – which almost uniquely, take place within the shared space of overlapping Public International Law and Private Law dimensions.

That essentially leaves two more books to read in-depth in September:

·       The Settlement Of International Cultural Heritage Disputes (2014) by Alessandro Chechi; and
·       China, Cultural Heritage, And International Law (2018) by Hui Zhong,

So, by the end of September, I will have completed my 1st in-depth ‘reading run’ of nearly all of the ‘core’ titles for the book, that are listed in the Research Bibliography on the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’ page at www.carlislam.co.uk.

Then I can start putting pen to paper in October.

In parallel, I will carry out two more reading runs of the entire research material, as the draft of the book progresses, and I have already assembled my first outline draft of the book, i.e. as the anatomical skeleton of the book.

Meanwhile, I am going offline until my next online talk to the SCMA on 11 November 2025 – ‘Mediation of International Cultural Heritage Disputes – Part 1: Introduction & Overview.’

For more information about the book, please visit the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’ page at www.carlislam.co.uk, which contains the current Chapter Structure.

AI – ‘Yes, ancient art encodes a significant geopolitical legacy for mankind. Far from being simple decorations, these visual messages communicate beliefs, social hierarchies, and power structures that define geopolitical realities.

While not always explicit like a modern political map, the narratives in ancient art provided the foundational context for how people understood their place in the world and their relationship to other societies. 

This is evident in several aspects of ancient art:

• Political propaganda: Ancient rulers and elites used art to reinforce their status and authority. Through idealized portraits and depictions of military victories, they communicated a specific political message to their subjects and rivals. For example, Roman victory arches and Egyptian tomb paintings celebrated military conquests and reinforced imperial power.
• Geographical and territorial claims: The art of ancient cultures could be used to make claims about their ancient ethnic origins and contested territories, especially as foundational stories for modern nation-states. For instance, a 19th-century Liebig trading card series on French history depicted the Gallic leader Vercingetorix’s defeat by the Romans as a foundational national episode, associating the modern state with ancient inhabitants and their land.
• Cultural dominance and international relations: Ancient art was not static. The movement of artifacts, whether through trade, plunder, or diplomacy, played a role in international relations. The display of certain artifacts in foreign capitals was an assertion of modernity or a tool for diplomacy. For example, the traveling exhibition of Tutankhamun’s artifacts during the Cold War was a powerful statement of Egyptian modernity.
• Encapsulation of social values and conflict: Art can reveal how societies conceptualized war, peace, and their relationships with outsiders. For example, ancient depictions of peace as a female figure, or war as a normal state of being, influenced how real-world conflicts were handled. Studying these representations offers insights into the “win-lose conceptualizations” of ancient geopolitical dynamics.
• Coded communication: Ancient art, particularly in tombs, sometimes used symbols to encode hidden messages, such as military strategies or political secrets. This reveals a deep and complex level of geopolitical thought beyond surface-level representations. Artificial intelligence is now being used to decode such ancient symbols, offering new insights into historical politics.
• The landscape as a geopolitical text: Ancient cultures often attached specific meanings to landscapes, which were then reinforced through visual art. This helped to shape national identities and the geopolitical self-perception of a people. This “geopolitical gaze” used art to define territory and a people’s place within it.’

My Q. – ‘What coded communications in Ancient Art e.g. symbols has AI decoded?’

AI – ‘AI is used to decode ancient texts and symbols by recognizing patterns, restoring damaged inscriptions, and assisting scholars in translating lost languages, with successful applications in ancient Cuneiform, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, and Latin. AI-powered tools like ProtoSnap and Fabricius identify and reconstruct symbols, while projects like Google’s Aeneas help scholars restore missing Latin words in inscriptions, expanding our knowledge of ancient history.  

Cuneiform 

• What it is:

The world’s oldest known writing system, featuring wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets.

• AI’s role:

Projects like ProtoSnap use AI to recognize and reconstruct cuneiform characters with high accuracy, even accounting for stylistic variations. This speeds up the translation of the vast number of digitized cuneiform tablets, expanding our understanding of ancient Mesopotamia.

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs 

• What it is: A complex writing system of symbols and images used in ancient Egypt.
• AI’s role: The abricius program employs machine learning to assist researchers in decoding hieroglyphs. Users can upload photos, create digital layers, and the program can suggest potential translations, making the process more accessible.

Latin Inscriptions 

• What it is:

Ancient inscriptions written in the Latin language, often found on stones and monuments.

• AI’s role:

AI models like Aeneas are trained to compare new inscriptions with thousands of known examples. This allows the AI to suggest reconstructions of missing words, assign texts to historical provinces, and even estimate dates, offering valuable insights to historians.

How AI Works in Decipherment

• Pattern Recognition:

AI, particularly through machine learning, excels at recognizing complex patterns in images, which is crucial for identifying and interpreting ancient symbols. 

• Data-Driven:

By analyzing vast datasets of digitized texts, AI learns the relationships between different characters and sequences, helping to reconstruct broken or faded writing. 

• Augmenting Human Expertise:

AI tools like Fabricius and Aeneas are designed to support, not replace, human experts. They provide powerful assistance, enabling scholars to work more efficiently and make new discoveries.’ 

AI – ‘Ancient art left an esoteric legacy by encoding spiritual and mystical knowledge in its symbols, geometry, and imagery, with meanings often accessible only to the initiated. Instead of being merely decorative, art in ancient cultures served as a vessel for complex concepts about creation, divinity, and transformation. 

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian art is a primary example of this esoteric tradition, where art and architecture served to communicate profound, hidden knowledge. 

• Symbolic imagery: Hieroglyphs were not just a form of writing but also powerful symbols believed to convey and invoke magical powers. For the initiated, they had multiple layers of meaning.
• Funerary art: The elaborate art found in tombs and on sarcophagi was part of a secret, complex system of beliefs about the journey to the afterlife. These images served as a guide for the deceased through the underworld, ensuring their rebirth.
• Ritualistic purpose: Temple art and adornments were functional components of rituals. By performing rites in a sacred space filled with symbolic art, priests and the initiated sought to interact with the divine. 

Ancient Greece

The esoteric legacy of Greek art and philosophy was primarily transmitted through mystery schools and hermetic traditions. 

• Pythagoreanism and Platonism: These schools of thought influenced artistic expression through a focus on divine mathematical and geometric principles. The harmony and ideal proportions seen in Greek art, architecture, and sculpture were considered reflections of a deeper, hidden reality.
• Mythology: Greek mythology, though seemingly a collection of stories, held encoded philosophical truths and allegories about humanity’s relationship with the divine. These myths were represented visually in art, where their symbolic nature could be contemplated. 

Other traditions

Similar esoteric legacies exist in other ancient cultures, from Eastern philosophies to the art of Indigenous peoples. 

• Eastern traditions: Esoteric Buddhism in East Asia, for example, used art as a necessary component for spiritual and worldly goals. Mandalas and thangkas in Tibet and the Himalayas depicted intricate cosmic diagrams used for meditation and visualization.
• Indigenous Australian art: In Queensland, rock art dating back tens of thousands of years depicts spirit beings, revealing the mystical beliefs that shaped early Indigenous societies. The elongated, ethereal figures are a visual link to their stories and connection to the spiritual world. 

Enduring influence

The esoteric traditions of ancient art have had a lasting impact, influencing later mystical movements and contemporary art. 

• Renaissance and Western esotericism: The Renaissance saw a revival of interest in hermeticism, alchemy, and Kabbalah, which influenced artists who sought to encode secret knowledge into their work.
• Modern art movements: Occult and esoteric themes influenced modern artists like Wassily Kandinsky, who believed art could access otherworldly realms. More recent movements have incorporated esoteric themes to explore contemporary issues related to environmentalism, gender, and digital culture.
• Modern media and culture: Today, esoteric art, imagery, and symbolism are frequently repurposed in popular media, including film, literature, and music videos. In this way, ancient esoteric traditions continue to evolve and influence contemporary cultural expression.’

AI – ‘The sacred Benben stone was a primordial mound, or a stone shaped like a cone or short obelisk, in ancient Egyptian mythology that represented the first land to emerge from the chaos waters during creation. Located in the temple of Ra at Heliopolis, it was where the first rays of the sun fell. The Benben symbolized the sun god Ra, the Bennu bird (a precursor to the phoenix), and served as the architectural prototype for the pyramidions (capstones) of later pyramids and obelisks.

Symbolism and Meaning

• Primordial Mound:The Benben was the foundation for creation, the first piece of dry land to appear from the primeval waters (Nu). 
• Sun God Ra:It was closely associated with Ra, the sun god, representing the first place the sun’s rays touched each morning. 
• Bennu Bird and Phoenix:The mythical Bennu bird was said to live on the Benben stone, a connection that may have inspired the concept of the phoenix. 
• Cycle of Life and Renewal:The Bennu bird and the sun’s cyclical appearance linked the Benben to the concepts of rebirth and the renewal of life. 

Architectural Significance 

• Prototype for Pyramids and Obelisks:The Benben served as the original model for the pyramidions that capped the summits of later Egyptian pyramids and for obelisks.
• Temple of the Benben:The sacred stone was housed in a shrine called the “House of the Benben” within the temple precinct at Heliopolis.

Lost but Preserved

• Lost Original:The original Benben stone is lost, but its concept is reflected in the pyramidions found on many pyramids, including the Pyramid of Amenemhat III, one of which is housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. 
• Possible Meteorite:Some theories suggest the original Benben stone might have been a meteorite.’ 

When I put out my bedroom lights and rested my head on a pillow last night the  phrase – ‘As Above, So Below’, from the ancient text, the Emerald Tablet, which is a cornerstone of Hermetic philosophy and alchemy, suddenly popped into my head.

Then, I had what I can only describe as being an Epiphany.

I saw in my mind an image of a Pyramid placed on top of an inverted mirror image of itself with a circle around the circumference of the ‘holistic’ diamond shaped image, and also around the transverse radius.

Then it struck me like a thunderbolt – this image represents a globe.

You can draw it on a piece of paper.

I keep a pad of paper next to my bed with a pen in case I wake up in the middle of the night with a new idea, and did exactly that.

I then had a peaceful night’s sleep and when I was awoken by the Sun’s rays this morning another idea occurred to me.

I knew that the Great Pyramid of Giza was originally covered by smooth limestone facing blocks, i.e. the steps underneath were not visible. But of course in designing the Pyramid they must have been drawn on a Plan.

Then it occurred to me what if each course i.e. layer of these steps when drawn horizontally on a spherical map of the earth i.e. a globe, could be designated as a line of latitude?

Then as I lay in bed I imagined the Great Pyramid of Giza visually turned on one side.

Then it occurred to me, if when the Pyramid was turned on its side, could each of the course steps i.e. each layer of the steps, vertically be designated as a line of longitude?

Then I realized, if they could, this would create a grid.

My next thought was, if e.g. at the intersection of any grid lines a fixed point in space i.e. a bright star, observable with the naked eye in the night sky could be marked as a fixed point on the grid e.g. by creating a channel inside the masonry of the Pyramid that pointed directly to the star on a particular date, then somehow using math to factor in precession, could a map of the sphere created by two pyramids be used as a navigational tool at sea, i.e. to chart a position by reference to lines of latitude and longitude?

So, in the office this morning, I asked AI – ‘Could a grid on a map of a sphere be used by sailors in Antiquity to navigate by the stars?’

AI replied – ‘Yes, ancient mariners could have used a grid on a spherical map to navigate by the stars, as the concept of spherical coordinates and astronomical positioning was understood in antiquity, notably by figures like Hipparchus, who compiled stellar catalogs and used spherical trigonometry. While ancient star charts were less precise than modern ones and lacked the detailed tables and accurate chronometers of later eras, sailors used instruments like the astrolabe and quadrant, combined with knowledge of star movements and constellations, to determine their latitude and general position at sea. 

Understanding the Spherical Nature of Navigation 

• Spherical Coordinates:

The Earth is a sphere, and ancient astronomers like Hipparchus understood that a spherical coordinate system, which uses two angles to define a point on a surface, was the natural way to describe positions on a sphere.

• Spherical Trigonometry:

Hipparchus developed models using spherical trigonometry to understand celestial movements.

Key Tools for Ancient Celestial Navigation

• Astrolabe:

This device could measure the altitude of celestial bodies and, with the help of tables or charts, help determine latitude. 

• Quadrant:

Originally an astronomical instrument, the quadrant was adapted for navigation to measure the height of stars above the horizon. 

• Star Maps and Charts:

While rudimentary compared to modern charts, ancient mariners used star maps to identify constellations and celestial bodies. 

How They Used the Grid (Conceptually)

• Latitude:

In the Northern Hemisphere, sailors could determine their latitude by measuring the angle of the North Star (Polaris) above the horizon, as this angle is roughly equivalent to the observer’s latitude. 

• Position Lines:

By taking sights on two or more celestial bodies, and referencing their position on a spherical map, sailors could conceptually draw lines or circles to determine their location. 

• Star Position and Time of Year:

Sailors had to know which constellations were visible at different times of the year and in different hemispheres to use them effectively. 

Limitations in Antiquity

• Accuracy:

Ancient instruments and charts lacked the precision of later tools like the sextant, limiting navigational accuracy. 

• Longitude:

Accurately determining longitude was a significant challenge without precise timekeeping devices (chronometers), which were invented much later. 

• Focus on Coastal Sailing:

While some advanced navigation occurred, much of ancient maritime activity, especially in the open ocean, was focused on more familiar waters, like the Mediterranean.’

See also my recent blogs at www.artandcivilization.tv:

• ‘The Hermetic Texts’ – in which I also enquire – ‘‘Is there a nexus between the Hermetic Texts, The Emerald Tablet, Alchemy and the Philosopher’s Stone?’
• ‘Aesthetically, could it be argued that the Giza Necropolis creates a hologram of Orion’s Belt?: 
• ‘Based upon the evidence of Egyptian ship-building techniques is it possible that a ship was designed and built for disassembly transportation to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans for reassembly and seafaring?’
• ‘Did the builders of the Great Pyramid at Giza know that the Earth was round?’ 

Q’s and comments added:

My Q. – ‘What is Spherical Trigonometry?’

AI – ‘Spherical trigonometry is a branch of geometry that studies the properties of triangles drawn on the surface of a sphere, rather than on a flat plane. This field is essential for calculations in astronomy, navigation, and geodesy, where the curvature of the Earth or celestial bodies must be taken into account.’

My Q. – ‘Who invented i.e. was the Father of Spherical Trigonometry.’

AI – ‘The title “Father of Spherical Trigonometry” is not definitively attributed to a single individual but is often credited to Menelaus of Alexandria for his surviving text Sphaerica, or to Ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani who has also been called the “Father of Modern Spherical Trigonometry”. Other significant figures include Hipparchus (the father of trigonometry) for his early work on solving spherical triangles, and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi for making trigonometry an independent branch of mathematics with significant contributions to spherical trigonometry. 

Key Figures in Spherical Trigonometry

• Hipparchus (c. 190–120 BC):

Considered the “father of trigonometry” in general, he provided methods for solving spherical triangles and compiled early trigonometric tables. 

• Menelaus of Alexandria (1st century AD):

His surviving work, Sphaerica, is the first known text on spherical trigonometry, containing theorems and rules for spherical geometry. 

• Ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani (10th/11th century):

An Islamic mathematician and astronomer who made significant contributions to spherical trigonometry and has also been called the “Father of Modern Spherical Trigonometry”. 

• Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (13th century):

A Persian polymath who established trigonometry as a branch of mathematics independent from astronomy, providing extensive expositions on spherical trigonometry, including stating the law of sines for spherical triangles.’ 

So, if the builders of the Great Pyramid of Giza knew about Spherical Trigonometry, they possibly acquired or developed this knowledge over 12 thousand years before Hipparchus.

My Q. – ‘What arguments have been made by Charles Hapgood that older civilizations possessed advanced knowledge of spherical trigonometry?’

AI – ‘Charles Hapgood argued that ancient civilizations possessed advanced knowledge of spherical trigonometry, evidenced by their sophisticated world maps, such as those he studied from the Middle Ages (Portolano charts) and the Piri Reis map. He claimed these maps were compiled using a spherical projection method that ancient geographers lacked, suggesting the original mapmakers—possibly ancient Egyptians—knew how to translate spherical surfaces to flat maps with mathematical precision, an understanding lost to the Greeks. 

Hapgood’s Core Argument

• Spherical Projection vs. Flat Maps:

Hapgood’s central argument was that some ancient world maps, despite their flat appearance, were based on original spherical maps. 

• Mistranslations by Later Civilizations:

He proposed that ancient geographers, like the Greeks, were confronted with spherical maps and lacked the understanding of spherical trigonometry to interpret them accurately. 

• Evidence in Ancient Maps:

According to Hapgood, they had to translate the complex spherical geographical data (latitudes and longitudes) into terms of a flat surface, leading to distortions. 

• Ancient Egyptian Knowledge:

He concluded that the ancient Egyptians possessed advanced knowledge, including the ability to accurately translate between spherical and flat surfaces using mathematical methods, while the Greeks did not. 

Evidence from Maps

• Ancient Origin:

Hapgood identified cartographic features on maps, such as the Piri Reis map and others from the Age of Discovery, that appeared to show a level of geographic accuracy and detail suggesting their origin was from an earlier, more scientifically advanced civilization. 

• Missing Information:

He noted that even with distortions, the maps often contained significant geographic details, like the accurately placed mountain ranges on the Finaeus map, that implied a sophisticated understanding of the Earth’s shape and surface. 

• Advanced Cartography:

The accuracy of some mapped locations, even close to the poles, led Hapgood to believe that the source maps were created using advanced cartographic and mathematical principles, including spherical trigonometry.’ 

Based upon the following measurements and simple calculations, logically, the answer to this Q. is arguably Yes.

My 1^st Q. – ‘In miles what is the Equatorial Circumference of the Earth? [‘EC’]?’

AI – ‘The Equatorial Circumference of the Earth is approximately 24,901 miles. This measurement refers to the distance around the Earth at its widest point, the Equator, which is slightly larger than the circumference measured through the poles.’ 

My 2nd Q. – ‘In miles what is the Polar Radius of the Earth? [‘PR’].’

AI – ‘The Earth’s polar radius is approximately 3,950 miles This is slightly shorter than its equatorial radius because Earth is not a perfect sphere but rather an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator due to its rotation.

My  3rd Q. – ‘In feet what is the perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid at Giza? [‘PB’].’

AI – ‘The perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza is approximately 3,024 feet. This is calculated by multiplying the length of one side of its square base, which is about 756 feet, by four.’

My 4th Q. – ‘In feet what is the height of the Great Pyramid at Giza? [‘PH’].’

AI – ‘The Great Pyramid of Giza was originally about 481 feet (147 meters) tall. Today, its height is approximately 454 feet (138.5 meters) due to the removal of its smooth, polished limestone casing stones over the millennia.

My 5th Q. – ‘Is the ratio of the perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza to its height very close to 2pi?’

AI – ‘Yes, the ratio of the perimeter of the Great Pyramid of Giza’s base to its height is very close to 2 pi.

My 6th Q. – ‘Could it be argued that the scale of the Great Pyramid to Earth multiplied by roughly 43,200, approximates Earth’s polar radius, and does its base perimeter, multiplied by roughly 43,200, also approximate Earth’s equatorial circumference?’

AI – ‘It can be argued that numerical correlations exist between the dimensions of the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Earth’s dimensions, using a scaling factor of approximately 43,200. …

43,200 is often linked to the Earth’s precession, a slow wobble of the Earth’s axis. The Earth precesses at a rate of approximately 1

degree every 72 years, and  43,200 is a multiple of 72.

This connection suggests a potential ancient understanding of astronomical cycles. 

Yes, it can be argued that the height of the Great Pyramid, when multiplied by approximately 43,200, approximates the Earth’s polar radius, and its base perimeter, when multiplied by roughly 43,200, also approximates the equatorial circumference.’

My 7th Q. – ‘What is EC [24,901] divided by 43,200.’

AI – ‘0.5764’ of a mile.

My 8th Q. – ‘How many feet are there in a mile?

AI – ‘5280.’

My 9th Q. – ‘What is 0.5764 multiplied by 5280?’

AI – ‘3043.39’ feet.

My 10th Q. – ‘What is 24,901 [i.e. EC] scaled down 43,200 times?’

AI – ‘To find what 24,901 is scaled down 43,200 times, you need to divide 24,901 by 43,200. 

24,901 scaled down 43,200 times is approximately 0.5764. NB AI’s answer to my Q.7 above.

My 11th Q. – ‘What is 3,950 scaled down by 43,200?’

AI – ‘3,950÷43,200 = 0.0914’ i.e. of a mile.

My 12th Q. – ‘What is 0.0914’ i.e. of a mile in feet?’

AI – ‘ 0.0914 miles is equal to 482.592 feet.’

My 13th Q. – ‘What is 481 [i.e. PH] minus 482.592?’

AI – ‘ -1.592’

My 14th Q. – ‘What 1.592 as a percentage of 481?’

AI – ‘0.331%’

In other words, it appears to be arguable that:

• the perimeter of the base of the Great Pyramid at Giza [‘PB’] could be a scaled down representation of the Earth’s Equatorial Circumference [‘EC’]; and
• the height of the Great Pyramid at Giza [‘PH’] could be a scaled down representation of the Earth’s Polar Radius [‘PR’].

So, axiomatically, did the builders of the Great Pyramid at Giza know that the earth was round?

i.e. because if you multiply:

 (iii)          PB by 43,200 it approximately equals EC; and

(iv) PH by 43,200 it approximately equals PR – with a magnitude of discrepancy of 0.331%.

The conventional dating for the Great Pyramid of Giza places its construction around 2560 BC, or approximately 4,600 years ago. This date is based on its association with Pharaoh Khufu and the historical context of the Old Kingdom period, which is further supported by archaeological finds and radiocarbon dating of organic materials found within the pyramid’s structure.

There are also theories which suggest that the Great Pyramid is over 10,000 years old. These theories are based on the Sphinx water erosion hypothesis, which argues that erosion patterns on the Sphinx and surrounding structures indicate heavy rainfall rather than wind erosion, suggesting an earlier date for their construction. 

The first practical demonstration that the earth is not flat was Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano’s circumnavigation (1519–1522), which confirmed the spherical shape of the earth. 

My 1st Q. – ‘What is unique about the construction of the vessels found in Abydos?’

AI – ‘The vessels found at Abydos are unique because they are the world’s oldest examples of large, plank-built boats with “sewn” hulls, which predate later Egyptian shipbuilding that used pegged joints

. These early first-dynasty royal vessels were constructed without a rigid internal frame and were likely designed to be disassembled. 

Key features of the Abydos vessels’ unique construction:

• Sewn-plank construction: The individual planks of local tamarisk wood were lashed together using ropes threaded through angled channels carved into the wood. This technique is sometimes referred to as being “sewn”.
• No internal frame: Unlike later vessels, the Abydos boats did not have an internal skeleton or frame for support. The hull relied entirely on the tension of the sewn ropes to hold its shape.
• Sealed seams: Bundles of reeds were stuffed into the seams between the planks to make the hull watertight.
• Designed for disassembly: The use of ligatures (lashings) rather than rigid, pegged joints allowed the planks to be easily taken apart. This was a critical feature for transporting the boats overland, particularly for journeys to the Red Sea, where they would be reassembled for use.
• Outside-in assembly: With no internal framework, the vessels were built by assembling the planks from the outside in.
• Local materials: The boats were constructed from local tamarisk wood, or “salt cedar,” rather than the more durable imported cedar from Lebanon used for later royal ships like the Khufu solar barque. 

The technological advances in these vessels represent a significant evolutionary step in Egyptian maritime history, moving beyond simple reed vessels and solid log dugouts toward complex plank-based construction.’

My 2nd Q. – ‘Since the vessels found in Abydos were designed to be disassembled could they be transported over land for reassembly and use to explore any ocean?’

AI – ‘Yes, the design of the dismantled Abydos vessels suggests they were intended for land transport and reassembly, primarily to facilitate voyages to the Red Sea, enabling exploration of the ocean. This practice allowed for boats built on the Nile to be disassembled and carried as “ship kits” across the desert for reassembly at a Red Sea port, enabling seagoing trade and exploration. 

Evidence for Land Transport and Reassembly

• “Ship Kits”:

The practice involved constructing vessels on the Nile and then disassembling them into “kits” of planks and timbers. 

• Desert Crossing:

These disassembled kits, sometimes referred to as “ship kits,” were then transported over land. 

• Reassembly for Sea:

At a port on the Red Sea, such as Qoseir, the boats were reassembled and launched for voyages. 

Purpose and Implications

• Red Sea Voyages:

The main reason for designing boats for disassembly was to move them from the Nile River across the Eastern Desert to the Red Sea. 

• Seafaring Exploration:

This capability allowed for significant seafaring activities, including trade with regions like the port town of Byblos, which required seaworthy craft. 

• Technological Prowess:

The sophisticated design, including planks shaped to allow for disassembly without damage, demonstrates the technological advancements and social organization of early dynastic Egypt. 

In essence, the design of the Abydos boats was a solution to a logistical challenge, bridging the Nile River and the open sea, and fundamentally supporting Egypt’s capacity for ocean exploration and maritime trade.’ 

My 3rd Q. – ‘Was any vessel found in antiquity designed for ocean going journeys?’

AI – ‘Yes, numerous ancient vessels designed for ocean journeys have been found, including the Khufu ship (a solar barque from ancient Egypt), the Uluburun shipwreck (a Bronze Age merchant vessel from Turkey), and the Syracusia (a large merchant ship designed by Archimedes). These and other examples demonstrate that ancient civilizations built sophisticated seagoing ships for trade, transport, and exploration across the seas.

Examples of Seagoing Vessels Found

• Khufu Ship (Egypt, ~2500 BCE):

A remarkable 44-meter-long wooden ship found entombed near the Great Pyramid of Giza, showcasing advanced Egyptian shipbuilding. 

• Uluburun Shipwreck (Turkey, ~1300 BCE):

The oldest discovered seagoing hull, it was a Late Bronze Age merchant ship carrying a diverse cargo. 

• Syracusia (Greece, 3rd century BCE):

Designed by Archimedes, this was one of the largest and most luxurious ships of antiquity, featuring opulent decorations, recreational areas, and a library. 

• Phoenician Merchant Ships (Mediterranean, ~1200 BCE):

The Phoenicians are recognized as pioneers of shipbuilding, constructing large merchant vessels capable of carrying heavy cargo across the seas. 

Evidence of Ancient Ocean Voyages

• Development of Sails and Planks:

The invention of the sail and the use of wooden planks, rather than reed bundles, by the Egyptians around 3000 BCE, allowed for bigger, more efficient ships capable of ocean travel. 

• Maritime Trade Routes:

Ancient maritime routes connected the Far East, the Middle East, and Europe, indicating that vessels were regularly crossing the Arabian Sea, the Mediterranean, and other large bodies of water. 

• Technological Advancement:

From the simple reed boats to the sophisticated planked ships and later large merchant vessels, each stage of development shows an increasing understanding of design for open-water voyages.’

My 4th Q. – ‘What was the purpose of the design of a high prow on vessels in antiquity?’

AI – ‘The purpose of a high prow on ancient vessels included the structural need to provide a strong, high point for connecting non-tapered planks, the strategic advantage of a ram for warfare, the hydrodynamic benefit of reducing wave resistance, the support for figureheads, and the provision of a platform for lookouts. The height could also be a symbolic or practical feature to help the ship “break” high waves, especially in early naval designs. 

Structural and Hydrodynamic Advantages

• Structural Integrity:

In the early construction of vessels from non-tapered planks, the high stem and sternpost provided essential structural integrity at the ends of the boat. 

• Wave Resistance:

A high, pointed, or well-shaped prow could cut through waves more efficiently, reducing resistance and providing a smoother passage, especially in rough seas. 

Military and Offensive Capabilities

• Naval Ram:

The high prow was the ideal platform for mounting a naval ram, a heavy, armored weapon designed to puncture the hull of an enemy ship and sink or disable it. 

• Lookout Point:

The elevated position of the high prow provided a crucial vantage point for sailors, allowing them to spot enemies, land, or navigate safely. 

Practical and Symbolic Functions

• Figureheads:

A high prow was a natural place to attach decorative figureheads, which were believed to offer protection, embody the ship’s spirit, and provide good luck for the crew. 

• High-Waved Environments:

The design could serve to “break” high waves, managing their force and helping the vessel maintain stability. 

My 5th Q. – ‘Did any vessel found in Egypt have a high prow?’

AI – ‘Yes, many Egyptian vessels, particularly papyriform or “papyrus-shaped” boats found in tombs like the Khufu boat, featured a high prow and stern, designed to resemble the shape of a papyrus plant. These papyriform boats, also found as models and carvings, were often used for ceremonial purposes, such as for gods traveling on the heavenly Nile or for transporting pharaohs to sacred sites.
 

Examples of vessels with high prows:

• The Khufu Boat:

This famous vessel, found at the Great Pyramid of Giza, is a prime example of a papyriform boat with a tall, high-rise prow and stern that resembled papyrus reeds. 

• Votive Models:

Small, palm-sized model boats from the Old Kingdom, featuring hedgehog heads at the prow, are another example of this high-prowed design. 

• Artistic Representations:

High prows are commonly seen in ancient Egyptian paintings and carvings of dynastic period boats. 

Purpose of High Prows:

• Ceremonial Significance:

Papyriform boats were not primarily for practical transport but were ceremonial vessels, used for divine journeys or pilgrimages to sacred sites. 

• Symbolic Form:

The high-raised ends of these boats were symbolic, mimicking the appearance of ancient papyrus boats and reflecting the Egyptians’ reliance on papyrus for building and their connection to the Nile.’

My 6th Q. – ‘Was any vessel with a high prow found in Egypt capable of disassembly transportation and reassembly?’

AI – ‘Yes, the Khufu Ship (or royal bark of Khufu) is a well-preserved ancient Egyptian vessel with a high prow, discovered sealed in a pit at Giza. It demonstrates the Egyptian capability for disassembly and reassembly of hull components through skilled construction with mortise-and-tenon joints and a frame that allowed for the hull to be held together without permanent fastenings, though it was initially intended for the afterlife rather than for active transportation or frequent disassembly.

The Khufu Ship

• Discovery:

The full-size solar barque was found in 1954, sealed in a pit beside the Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu. 

• Construction:

It was a large, intricate vessel built using mortise-and-tenon joints, where wooden pegs and sometimes copper nails held the planks together in slots. This allowed for a tight fit. 

• Disassembly and Reassembly:

The design of the hull planks limited longitudinal slippage and enabled the disassembly and reassembly of hull components without damage. 

• High Prow and Stern:

The Khufu ship features a high, exaggerated prow and stern, with the prow shaped like a papyrus bundle. 

• Purpose:

The vessel was a funerary boat, part of the grave goods intended for the Pharaoh’s use in the afterlife. It was likely intended to cross the Nile, but not to be frequently assembled or disassembled after its placement.’

My 7tjh Q. – ‘Is there any evidence that the Egyptians constructed a ship with a permanent mast, sails, rigging, and other features necessary for sea navigation that had a high prow?’

AI – ‘Yes, the Egyptians constructed ships with permanent masts, sails, and rigging for sea navigation, and some of these vessels had high prows, as evidenced by archaeological finds like the solar boat of Khufu and expeditions to Punt. They pioneered early sailing technology, using reeds for riverboats and later developing more durable wooden vessels for the Nile and the Red Sea, eventually incorporating sails and masts for open-sea travel. While the design varied, the sophistication of these ships, including features like permanent masts and high prows, reflects their advanced understanding of maritime engineering and a history of extensive use of water transport.  

Evidence for Seafaring Ships

• Archaeological Discoveries:

Excavations of ship timbers at Wadi Gawasis (on the Red Sea coast) confirm sophisticated ship construction and enable reconstructions of seaworthy vessels. 

• Royal Vessels:

The discovery of the solar boat of Khufu, an exceptionally preserved 5,000-year-old wooden ship, demonstrates advanced shipbuilding for the Early Dynastic period and its use in royal funerary practices, possibly for afterlife journeys. 

• Red Sea Expeditions:

Expeditions, such as those to the Land of Punt during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, indicate that Egyptians had the means and knowledge for long-distance seafaring. 

Features of Egyptian Ships

• Permanent Masts:

While early ships were reed-based and used paddles, they eventually evolved to incorporate sails and masts to provide propulsion. The discovery of linen fragments at Wadi Gawasis also supports the existence of sails. 

• Rigging and Sails:

The Egyptians developed rigging systems for their sails, which were essential for harnessing wind power, reducing manual effort, and enabling efficient navigation on the open sea. 

• High Prows:

While not universally described as high, the overall design of Egyptian ships, as seen in models and reconstructions, sometimes featured a high, ornamental prow, especially on royal vessels, reflecting their complex cultural and spiritual significance. 

Evolution of Ship Design

• Early Reed Boats: Initial vessels were made of papyrus reeds for Nile navigation. 
• Wooden Construction: Over time, Egyptians transitioned to more durable wooden construction, using techniques to seal seams and create sturdier vessels. 
• Technological Advancement: These vessels were then equipped with masts and sails, marking a significant advancement from earlier paddle-powered craft, which significantly expanded their capabilities for both river and sea travel. 

My 8th Q. – ‘Is there any evidence that the Egyptians had the technology to construct Seafaring ships that were capable of disassembly, transportation and reassembly?’

AI – ‘Yes, there is evidence that the ancient Egyptians dismantled and reassembled ships, particularly for transportation over land between the Nile and the Red Sea. Excavations at the Red Sea port of Wadi Gawasis have uncovered timbers and artifacts indicating ships were constructed as individual “ship kits” of planks, beams, and fasteners. These ship kits were then carried across the desert and reassembled into complete, seaworthy vessels capable of long-distance voyages.  

Evidence for ship kits and land transport:

• Wadi Gawasis Excavations:

Archaeological finds at the pharaonic port of Wadi Gawasis provide direct physical evidence of seagoing ships and their construction methods. 

• “Ship Kits”:

Kenneth Kitchen and others have identified individual planks, beams, and fasteners left behind at these sites, suggesting they were transported to the Red Sea from Nile facilities. 

• Dismantling and Reassembly:

The archaeological record shows evidence of ship construction and dismantling, with wood showing signs of having been reworked after exposure to marine conditions. 

• Koptos as a Transfer Point:

Koptos, the closest point on the Nile to the Red Sea, served as a crucial transfer point for moving ship components across the desert to construct vessels for voyages into the Red Sea. 

Evidence of advanced seafaring and reassembly technology:

• Cedar Ships:

The discovery of massive cedar timbers confirmed the Egyptians’ ability to construct large, durable ships capable of long-distance sea travel. 

• Integrated Construction:

The ship timbers featured thick planks with mortise-and-tenon joints and dovetail fastenings, demonstrating advanced construction techniques that allowed for the ships to be disassembled and reassembled efficiently. 

• Mastery of Seafaring:

This evidence refutes previous scholarly underestimates of Egyptian capabilities and demonstrates a profound mastery of seafaring technology, enabling them to conduct extensive trade and imperial business at sea.’

My 9th Q. – ‘Based upon the evidence of Egyptian ship-building techniques is it possible that a ship was designed and built for  disassembly transportation to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans for reassembly and seafaring?’

AI – ‘Yes, evidence from the Mersa/Wadi Gawasis site on the Red Sea coast confirms that the Egyptians built ships on the Nile, dismantled them into “ship kits,” transported these components across the desert to the Red Sea coast, and reassembled them for seafaring journeys. This technique demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of construction and logistics, allowing Egyptians to build river-oriented vessels that were then adapted and rebuilt for ocean voyages into the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.  

Evidence for Disassembly and Transport 

• Ship Kits:

Archaeological finds at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis indicate that ships were constructed on the Nile and then dismantled into “ship kits”.

• Desert Transport:

These kits, consisting of planks, beams, fasteners, and other necessary timbers, were transported across the Eastern Desert, likely to the nearest point on the Nile, Koptos, which was about 140 km from the Red Sea coast.

• Reassembly:

The timbers were then reassembled at facilities on the Red Sea coast to form seaworthy vessels capable of long-distance voyages.

Shipbuilding Techniques

• Nile to Sea Adaptation:

The Egyptians adapted their well-developed river-oriented shipbuilding techniques for use in the Red Sea. 

• Mortise-and-Tenon Joints:

Evidence shows the use of sophisticated joinery techniques, such as mortise-and-tenon joints, to secure hull components and ensure structural integrity for both river and sea vessels. 

• Structural Improvements:

Later innovations included the development of the keel for longitudinal strength, stronger mast supports, and more efficient rigging for square sails, all contributing to the ability to build larger and more seaworthy vessels. 

Seafaring Capabilities

• Red Sea Expeditions:

Expeditions from Mersa/Wadi Gawasis attest to Egyptians sailing the Red Sea to distant lands like Punt (near modern Somalia) to acquire resources such as myrrh and exotic woods. 

• Open-Sea Navigation:

These efforts allowed for long-distance trade and the establishment of maritime networks, confirming the success of their adaptable shipbuilding techniques in ventures beyond the Nile.’ 

As a Barrister I was trained to think in reverse, and to examine the possibility of the existence of a credible ‘converse’ hypothesis.

I do this by asking myself the simple rhetorical Q. – ‘What in fact, if it happened the other way around?’

So, my 10th Q. was – ‘Is it possible that in Antiquity a disappeared seafaring civilization possessed the knowhow and technological capability to undertake a maritime voyage to Egypt?’

AI – ‘Yes, it’s possible that in Antiquity a lost seafaring civilization could have possessed the technology for a voyage to Egypt, but there is no current archaeological evidence for a specific, lost civilization capable of this voyage during that time period. While evidence exists for early seafaring in regions like Southeast Asia and Egypt itself dating back tens of thousands of years, any civilization that could have reached Egypt would have needed advanced boat-building skills, including potentially sails and complex navigation. Such a civilization would also require a cultural and commercial incentive for such a long-distance journey. 

Early Seafaring and Technological Capabilities

• Evidence for Early Seafaring:

The earliest evidence of significant maritime skills comes from Southeast Asia, where stone tools indicate advanced boat-building and open-sea fishing as early as 40,000 years ago, notes Popular Mechanics. 

• Development of Sails:

The adoption of the sail was a major development in maritime transport, with iconographic evidence appearing in Egypt in the late fourth millennium BC, according to Wikipedia. 

• Egypt’s Own Seafaring:

Ancient Egyptians developed their ship-building technology, with evidence of complex planked wooden boats appearing by the First Dynasty (around 3050 BCE). They also had an early familiarity with the Red Sea, as shown by seashells found in mid-fourth millennium Nile Valley sites. 

Voyaging to Egypt

• A Potential Precursor to Documented Seafaring:

Although seafaring is not documented before the Old Kingdom in Egypt, it could have existed earlier, possibly during the Predynastic Period. 

• Motivation for Voyages:

For any lost civilization to have reached Egypt, there would have needed to be a strong motivation, such as trade or settlement. The growth of maritime trade along the Levantine coast, for example, drew segments of its population to settle in the Egyptian Delta, notes a paper from Ancient Coastal Settlements, Ports and Harbours. 

The “Lost Civilization” Concept

• Lack of Evidence:

While it is a fascinating idea, there is currently no known evidence or widely accepted theory about a specific lost civilization possessing the technology to reach Egypt in antiquity. 

• Focus on Documented Cultures:

Instead, archaeological and historical studies focus on well-documented ancient maritime cultures, such as the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians themselves, to understand ancient sea travel.’ 

My 11th Q. – ‘Could the Minoans have visited Egypt in antiquity?’

AI – ‘Yes, there is substantial evidence of interaction between the Minoans and ancient Egypt, including documented trade and the movement of people, with Egyptian tomb paintings depicting Minoan-appearing individuals bringing gifts and Minoan-style frescoes found in Egyptian palaces. Minoan traders and artists likely visited Egypt and other Mediterranean regions, facilitated by their advanced maritime skills. 

Evidence of Minoan Presence in Egypt:

• Tomb Paintings:

Depictions of people from “Keftiu” (which referred to Crete or the Aegean region in Egyptian texts) carrying offerings have been found in 18th-Dynasty Theban tombs, from the reigns of rulers like Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. 

• Minoan Frescoes:

Minoan-style frescoes, including scenes of bull-leaping, were discovered in palaces at Tell el-Dab’a (Avaris) in the Nile Delta, dating to the Thutmosid era. 

• Artifacts:

Trade is supported by the presence of Minoan pottery in Egypt and Egyptian goods, such as scarabs and faience figures, found in the Aegean region. 

Nature of the Interaction:

• Trade and Cultural Exchange:

The relationship was characterized by intense cultural and economic contact, not just formal tribute, with Minoans as advanced traders and artisans. 

• Artist and Craftsmen Movement:

The Minoan frescoes in Egyptian palaces suggest Minoan artists or artisans visited or worked in Egypt. 

• Diplomatic Ties:

The interactions also involved diplomatic connections between the two civilizations. 

Geographical Context:

• Maritime Routes:

Crete’s location on key maritime trade routes connected it to Egypt, the Levant, Cyprus, and the rest of the Mediterranean world. 

• Common Intermediaries:

While the evidence is strong for direct contact, some scholars suggest the Minoan presence in Egypt could also be a result of trade through intermediaries or itinerant artists traveling the region.’

My 12th Q. – ‘Between what dates did Minoan civilization exist?’

AI – ‘ The Minoan civilization existed on the island of Crete from approximately 3100 BCE to 1100 BCE, during the Bronze Age. Named after the legendary king Minos, this civilization was characterized by its advanced culture, sophisticated palace complexes like Knossos, and extensive maritime trade networks. 

Key Aspects of Minoan Civilization

• Location:

Primarily on the island of Crete, with settlements and influence extending across the Aegean Sea. 

• Time Period:

From the early Bronze Age (around 3100 BCE) to the end of the Late Bronze Age (around 1100 BCE). 

• Name Origin:

The civilization was named after the mythical King Minos by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. 

• Culture & Architecture:

Known for its impressive palaces, such as the one at Knossos, which featured paved streets and complex drainage systems. 

• Art:

Minoan art is famous for its vibrant frescoes depicting religious and secular scenes, and motifs like the bull and snake. 

• Decline:

The civilization declined due to factors including natural disasters (like the Thera eruption), invasions, and internal conflicts, leading to the rise of the Mycenaean civilization.’

My 13th Q. – ‘Is there any apparent similarity between the design of Minoan vessels and Phoenician ocean going ships?’

AI –  ‘There is little direct evidence of similarities in the specific design of Minoan vessels and Phoenician ocean-going ships, as hard archaeological evidence is scarce. However, both cultures were advanced maritime civilizations that relied on sea trade, and some scholars believe that the Phoenicians, who developed advanced techniques like the use of keels and perfected sails and the trireme, may have built upon earlier Aegean (Minoan) concepts for their sophisticated designs.
 

Minoan Ships 

• Figurative Evidence: Minoan vessels are known from seals and models found on Crete.
• Reed Boat Influence: Some Minoan ships appear to have had a sickle-shaped hull, resembling reed boats and Egyptian watercraft from the same era.
• Early Aegean Types: The Minoans used at least two types of vessels, one with a sickle-shaped hull and another with a high, vertical projection and a ram at the foot, which hints at the origin of later Greek warships.

Phoenician Ships 

• Advanced Technology: The Phoenicians were renowned for their sophisticated shipbuilding, developing technologies such as the use of cedar-built keels and perfected sails.
• Navigational Tools: They also developed the trireme, a powerful warship.
• “Cutwater” Technology: Phoenician ships featured a “cutwater,” a sharp point that improved their ability to cut through water.

Potential Connections

• Technological Evolution:

The Phoenicians may have integrated and refined earlier designs and technologies found in the Minoan and Egyptian traditions. 

• Common Mediterranean Practices:

Both civilizations operated within a shared Mediterranean maritime tradition, which involved common shipbuilding techniques and the use of cedar from the cedars of Lebanon.’

My 14th Q. ‘Has it ever been posited that Minoan civilization on Crete was Atlantis?’

AI – ‘Yes, it was a popular theory among some scholars in the 1960s and 1970s that Minoan Crete was Atlantis, based on the idea that the destruction of Minoan culture was caused by a volcanic eruption and tsunami. However, this “Minoan hypothesis” is largely unsupported by evidence and is not considered valid today, as Plato’s Atlantis is widely believed to be a literary device rather than a historical location. 

The connection to Minoan Crete

• Natural disaster:

The Minoan civilization on Crete was devastated by a massive volcanic eruption on the nearby island of Thera (modern Santorini) and a subsequent tsunami around 1500 BC. 

• Popularization:

The theory that this event was the real-world inspiration for the Atlantis legend gained significant attention after the publication of three books in 1969, which popularised the connection. 

• Supporting arguments:

Proponents of the theory pointed to the Minoans’ advanced civilization, their flourishing culture, and the sudden catastrophic destruction of their society as fitting elements of the Atlantis myth. 

Why the theory was refuted

• Plato’s intent:

Most scholars now agree that Plato likely invented Atlantis as a cautionary tale or philosophical allegory, rather than it being a lost historical place. 

• Misalignment with Plato’s description:

The Minoan civilization does not fully align with the details Plato provided about Atlantis in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias. 

• Chronological differences:

There are inconsistencies between the historical timeline of the Minoan collapse and the timeframe described for Atlantis by Plato. 

• Lack of supporting evidence:

There is no definitive archaeological evidence to support the claim that Minoan Crete was Atlantis.’ 

The story of Atlantis originates with the Greek philosopher Plato in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias, where he claims it was based on information translated from Egyptian records by the Athenian statesman Solon. However, direct Egyptian accounts or mentions of this submerged continent do not exist in any known Egyptian texts. 

My 15th Q. – ‘What account does Plato state in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias, about Atlantis and this being based upon information translated from Egyptian records by the Athenian statesman Solon?’

AI – ‘In the Timaeus and Critias, Plato describes Atlantis as an advanced civilization that was eventually destroyed by a natural disaster for its hubris and attempted to invade the ancient world. This legendary island was a source of great material wealth but fell into moral decay, leading to its demise. The information about Atlantis came to Solon, the Athenian statesman, from Egyptian priests, who had records of this ancient story. Solon then passed this account to his own family, which eventually reached Critias, who retells it in Plato’s dialogues. 

The Origin of the Story 

• Solon’s Journey to Egypt:

The story of Atlantis was originally heard by the Athenian statesman Solon when he visited Egypt.

• Egyptian Priests’ Account:

Egyptian priests shared their ancient records with Solon, detailing a powerful, advanced civilization known as Atlantis that once existed.

• Transmission through Generations:

The story was passed down through Solon’s family, eventually reaching Critias, one of Plato’s characters in the dialogues.

Key Aspects of Atlantis in the Dialogues

• Physical Description:

Plato describes Atlantis as an island with a unique layout, featuring concentric circles of land and water, mountains in the north, and a vast plain in the south. 

• Wealth and Resources:

Atlantis was noted for its material richness, possessing an abundance of timber and a mysterious metal called orichalc (likely a copper alloy). 

• Moral Decline:

The Atlanteans initially displayed great virtue but, over time, their society became corrupted by greed and hubris. 

• Destruction:

Due to their moral failings, Atlantis was ultimately destroyed by a catastrophic event, disappearing into the sea. 

• War with Ancient Athens:

Before its destruction, Atlantis attempted to conquer the world, but it was repelled by the ancient Athenians, who are depicted as a highly virtuous society.’ 

My 16th Q. – ‘According to Plato where was Atlantis geographically located?’

AI – ‘According to Plato’s dialogues Timaeus and Critias, Atlantis was a large island situated in the Atlantic Ocean beyond the “Pillars of Heracles,” which is generally understood to be the Strait of Gibraltar. Plato described it as a formidable naval power with territorial influence extending into the Mediterranean Sea. Atlantis’s location relative to the Pillars of Heracles

• Beyond the Pillars: Plato explicitly stated that the island lay “in front of the mouth which you Greeks call, as you say, the pillars of Heracles,” a location that placed it squarely in the Atlantic Ocean.
• A gate to a “true ocean”: The dialogues also mention that Atlantis served as a gateway to “the whole of the opposite continent,” which surrounded “the true ocean”. This led some readers, particularly after the discovery of the Americas, to speculate that this “opposite continent” was the New World. 

The island’s dimensions and characteristics

• Size: Plato described Atlantis as being larger than Libya and Asia Minor combined.
• Topography: The island was dominated by a vast, oblong plain surrounded by mountains that sloped down to the sea.
• Navigational issues: According to the story, after Atlantis sank into the sea, it left behind “impassable mud,” making the waters unnavigable. 

The allegorical nature of the story

While the geographical details are specific, most modern classical scholars agree that Atlantis was a fictional allegory created by Plato. The story was used as a philosophical tool to contrast an idealized, ancient version of Athens with a corrupt, materialistic Atlantis that was ultimately destroyed by the gods. The remote, faraway setting beyond the known world helped emphasize its symbolic, rather than historical, purpose.’

While excluded from the Genocide Convention, the concept of ‘Cultural Genocide’ is a useful tool for courts to link the destruction of cultural heritage with: (i) the Crime of Genocide; and (ii) Crimes against Humanity.

See Federico, Lenzerini, ‘Terrorism, Conflicts and the Responsibility to Protect Cultural Heritage’ (2016) 51(2) International Spectator 70, 78 (destruction carried out with discriminatory intent may constitute a crime against humanity or evidence of genocidal intent). See also UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage  (17 October 2003) (characterising in the Preamble the intentional destruction of Cultural Heritage as having ‘adverse consequences on human dignity and human rights’). [Cited in Footnote 81 on p.162 of ‘Cultural Objects and Reparative Justice’, by Patty Gerstenblith (2023) (OUP)].

‘The Rome Statute does not specify the destruction of cultural heritage as an independent crime against humanity or as a form of genocide. The policy of the Office of the Prosecutor treats attacks on or destruction of cultural heritage instrumentally as a means of establishing the required elements of discriminatory intent and targeting of the group in the commission of crimes against humanity or genocide. Recent decisions of the United States courts indicate an evolving definition of genocide to include acts that might be termed cultural genocide in determining what constitutes a violation of international law.’ (Gerstenblith p. 163).

Look at the images of what remains standing in Gaza.

Ask yourself – ‘Has Israel destroyed the Cultural Heritage of the Palestinian People in Gaza?’

Your answer must be a binary ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.

Before you answer that Q. as a corollary, ask yourself – ‘Could the scale of destruction as evidenced by photographs taken from the air and on the ground, have occurred without the involvement of the IDF?’

If the answer to this Q. is ‘No’, then your answer to the previous Q. must logically be ’Yes’.

In which case, I would submit that the only sensible conclusion which can rationally be drawn from the evidence, is that while the destruction of Cultural Heritage is not itself a crime against humanity or a form of genocide, because it can be used to establish the required elements of ‘discriminatory intent’ and ‘targeting of the group in the commission of Crimes against Humanity or Genocide’, that given the scale of destruction in Gaza, it does exactly that.

So, the evidence alone of the destruction of what appears to be almost the entire tangible Cultural Heritage of the Palestinian People in Gaza, appears to be sufficient to discharge the Burden of Proof in the Judicial determination by the ICJ at the Hague, of whether Israel has committed both: (i) Crimes against Humanity; and (ii) Genocide.

That legal proposition will of course soon be tested at the ICJ.

See also:

• Gaza Strip: Damage assessment: Gaza Strip: Damage assessment | UNESCO
• A ‘cultural genocide’: Which of Gaza’s heritage sites have been destroyed? – Nearly 200 sites of historical importance have been destroyed or damaged in Israeli air raids on the Palestinian enclave in the past 100 days.’

Comments added:

Cultural identity is considered to part of human dignity. It is linked to human rights because cultural heritage is of crucial importance to individuals and communities as part of their identity. As cultural heritage requires memory, this applies to both tangible and intangible heritage, because material and physical heritage needs to be placed in both a historical and cultural context, in order to understand its value.

‘The cultural heritage of a people is not limited to the tangible expressions of art, architecture, religion, poetry, or writing in general but also includes its intangible heritage, which is transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity. More generally, cultural heritage includes the expressions of the people’s spirituality, and the body of values which give meaning to life’  (Francioni, Francesco & Ana Filipa Vrdoljak‘ (2020) The Oxford Handbook of International Cultural Heritage Law, Oxford University Pres, p 77).

‘The real target of most acts of intentional destruction of cultural heritage is therefore, not the heritage in itself but the human communities for which such a heritage is of special significance.’ (‘Mens Rea of Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage’, by Federico Lenzerini, Chapter 4 of the Oxford Handbook of International Cultural Heritage Law’ (2020), Oxford University Press, page 77).

‘The destruction of heritage, and prohibition of cultural behaviours are used by certain conflict actors as “shaping operations”, where violence against the “Other” becomes normalised as communities, either incrementally or at once, lose their property, freedoms, and humanity. Culture is a shared set of values, ideas, and behaviours that enable a social group to function and survive. Cultural heritage maintains identity, social cohesion, and a sense of security through intangible practices, including rituals, music, language and skills, and tangible property such as artefacts, archaeology and places. Roosevelt’s four  freedoms link cultural behaviour – to freedom from fear and want. Targeting cultural heritage is an act of power that legitimises one group while diminishing others and is often a precursor for the most offensive form of cultural destruction: genocide.’ (Clack & Dunkley, p.301 – An interview with Colonel Rosie Stone. These are the words of Colonel Stone).

The destruction of cultural heritage as a tactic of Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide prompted the development of International Law to protect cultural heritage in times of armed conflict.

Hugo Grotius and Emmerich de Vattel, influential jurists in the development of the law of nations, argued that cultural objects, as they are not militarily useful, should be protected during armed conflict.

They argued that preserving such heritage honoured human society and did not strengthen the enemy.

Their arguments, rooted in principles of moderation and military necessity, laid the groundwork for later international conventions aimed at protecting cultural heritage during wartime.

Consequently, the intentional destruction of tangible Cultural Heritage, as a tactic in carrying out ‘Ethnic Cleansing’ and ‘Genocide’, is now recognized as being a grave violation of jus cogen norms of International Law that are erga omnes.

That is why there must be a universal ‘legal reckoning’, i.e. full legal accountability for all of those who are responsible either directly or indirectly, i.e. through complicity in the widespread commission of War Crimes.

Therefore, it is not only the survival of the Palestinian People that is at stake in Gaza, it is also the survival of International Law as a bulwark, in preserving and protecting the Cultural Heritage of all Humanity on this planet.

This is not some ‘Grandiose Statement’, because where the ‘Greater Israel Project’ of territorial expansion through: (i) land theft by Israeli settlers – at ‘gun-point’; (ii) Ethnic Cleansing; and (iii) Genocide – committed by the IDF; and (iv) endless war by Israel, is taking place and will spread, is ‘geographically’ in the heart of the Levant, which holds significant religious importance as the birthplace of major world religions and is considered to be a ‘Cradle of World Civilization’.

See also:

• Israel’s Hospital Attack LIES Fall Apart: Israel’s Hospital Attack LIES Fall Apart
• IPC Report: IPC_Famine_Review_Committee_Report_Gaza_Aug2025-compressed.pdf
• “People Should Resign!” Retired Major General on Gaza | Matt Kennard meets Charlie Herbert – Speaking to investigative journalist Matt Kennard, retired Major General Charlie Herbert who served in the British Army for more than thirty years expresses his disgust and dismay at Israel’s actions.: “People Should Resign!” Retired Major General on Gaza | Matt Kennard meets Charlie Herbert
• ‘Fmr. Green Beret Tony Aguilar Details Disturbing Gaza War Crimes: Fmr. Green Beret Tony Aguilar Details Disturbing Gaza War Crimes
• Prof. John Mearsheimer : A Brief History of Israel: Prof. John Mearsheimer : A Brief History of Israel -Professor Mearsheimer argues that the Ethnic Cleansing and genocide in Gaza is about demographics.
• ‘The Palestinian shot defending his home from Israeli settlers: The Palestinian shot defending his home from Israeli settlers – Channel 4 News’
• ‘Katie Halper – IDF Accused of Burying Children Alive: IDF Accused of Burying Children Alive.’IDF Accused of Burying Children Alive
• ‘Holocaust survivor destroys Israel and Keir Starmer.’ Holocaust survivor destroys Israel and Keir Starmer
• ‘It is a famine. The Gaza Famine | UN Humanitarian Chief’: It is a famine. The Gaza Famine | UN Humanitarian Chief – YouTube
• UN Relief Chief says Gaza famine “must spur the world to urgent action” – Question of Palestine
• Gaza: Famine “irrefutably” confirmed, UN humanitarians unite in plea for aid access – OCHA, OHCHR, WFP and WHO – Question of Palestine
• ‘The One Video Israel Doesn’t Want You To See’: The One Video Israel Doesn’t Want You To See
• ‘The BBC Hide The Truth About Israel’s Genocide – AGAIN’: The BBC Hide The Truth About Israel’s Genocide – AGAIN
• Why Labour REALLY Supports Genocide: Why Labour REALLY Supports Genocide
• Col. Larry Wilkerson: Warning Signs Everywhere: U.S. on the Verge of Disaster: Col. Larry Wilkerson: Warning Signs Everywhere: U.S. on the Verge of Disaster – YouTube
• ‘Blood Lust’ – Israel has a licence to kill from God – discussed by Alastair Crooke : Trump: The Self-Made Myth: Alastair Crooke : Trump: The Self-Made Myth

My 1^st Q. – ‘Did anybody warn the UK Government about legal complicity in the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Yes, the UK government has been warned multiple times about its potential legal complicity in violations of international law in Gaza, which includes the destruction of cultural heritage. While most direct warnings focus on arms sales and human rights violations, the legal risks stemming from these actions extend to all violations of international law, which encompass the intentional destruction of cultural property during armed conflict. 

Legal and NGO warnings

• Lawyers’ letters: Since the war began in October 2023, UK-based lawyers, legal academics, and former judges have repeatedly sent open letters to the UK government warning of its potential complicity in war crimes and genocide in Gaza. While not exclusively focused on cultural heritage, these warnings highlight the overall legal risks associated with continuing to supply arms to Israel amid alleged serious violations of international law.
• NGOs and human rights groups: Numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have warned the UK government about its potential legal complicity.
  • Christian Aid, Oxfam, War on Want, and Global Justice Now issued a joint letter in January 2024, warning that the UK risked complicity in the “slaughter of civilians” by continuing arms sales to Israel.
  • Medical Aid for Palestinians (MAP) and other NGOs have also warned the UK that its policies and inaction put it at risk of complicity in violations of international law.
• Specific evidence to Parliament: In late 2024, written evidence submitted to UK Parliament committees explicitly raised the issue of cultural heritage. For example, one submission mentioned a December 2023 response to the destruction of the al Omari Mosque in Gaza and concerns about the looting of antiquities, urging the UK to enforce conventions protecting cultural property.
• Parliamentary questions and debates: Members of Parliament have repeatedly questioned ministers about potential government complicity in violations of international law in Gaza. This has included questions about adhering to the provisional measures of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which relate to genocide and, by extension, other grave violations such as the destruction of cultural property. 

Legal basis for warnings regarding cultural property

The warnings are based on the UK’s legal obligations under international law, particularly concerning complicity in international crimes.

• Geneva Conventions: The UK, as a High Contracting Party, is obligated to ensure respect for the conventions, which include rules on protecting cultural objects.
• 1954 Hague Convention: This convention specifically protects cultural property during armed conflict. In a December 2024 submission to the UK Parliament, a body raised concerns about damaged religious sites in Gaza and urged the government to enforce the 1970 UNESCO convention on illicit trafficking of cultural property.
• International Criminal Court (ICC) Statute: The statute defines intentionally directing attacks against historic monuments and buildings dedicated to religion as a war crime. As a member state, the UK could be seen as complicit if it aids or assists in such crimes. 

Summary

While many legal and NGO warnings primarily focus on the loss of civilian life and arms exports, the specific issue of cultural heritage has also been raised with the UK government. The broader warnings regarding potential complicity in war crimes and genocide implicitly cover all serious violations of international humanitarian law, including the destruction of cultural property.’

See also my blog on the same page –  ‘Does the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza prove that Israel has committed Crimes against Humanity & Genocide?’ and:

• “People Should Resign!” Retired Major General on Gaza | Matt Kennard meets Charlie Herbert – Speaking to investigative journalist Matt Kennard, retired Major General Charlie Herbert who served in the British Army for more than thirty years expresses his disgust and dismay at Israel’s actions. “People Should Resign!” Retired Major General on Gaza | Matt Kennard meets Charlie Herbert

My 2^nd Q, – ‘What notable Cultural Heritage Sites and Monuments existed in Gaza before November 2023?’

AI – ‘Numerous important cultural heritage sites and monuments existed in Gaza prior to November 2023, reflecting its long and diverse history. 

Here are some examples:

• Archaeological Sites:
  • Tell es-Sakan: An Early Bronze Age settlement (3300-2300 BC), according to Wikipedia the first archaeological site in Gaza dating to this period.
  • Tell el-Ajjul: Another significant archaeological site from the Middle and Late Bronze Age.
  • Anthedon Harbour (Al-Balakhiyya): Gaza’s ancient port dating from 800 BCE to 1100 AD, a cultural site on Palestine’s tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
  • St.Hilarion Monastery/Tell Umm Amer: A 4th-century monastery in the Nuseirat municipality, considered one of the earliest monasteries in the Middle East and the first in the Palestine region.
• Religious Sites:
  • Great Omari Mosque: Gaza’s oldest and largest mosque, with a history spanning centuries, built on the site of a former Byzantine church and possibly an even earlier temple.
  • Church of Saint Porphyrius: The oldest church in Gaza, rebuilt in the 12th century AD, associated with St.Porphyrius, bishop of Gaza in the 5th century AD.
  • Sayed al-Hashim Mosque: One of Gaza’s historic mosques, featuring Ottoman architecture.
• Historic Buildings & Monuments:
  • Pasha’s Palace (Qasr al-Basha): A large, two-story palace dating to the Mamluk era, later serving as a museum.
  • Rashad Shawa Cultural Center: Established in 1988, this center hosted various cultural events and housed a theater and library.
  • Hamam al-Samra: A Mamluk-era bathhouse, also a significant historical site.
  • Unknown Soldier Square and Monument: A notable square with a monument symbolizing the Palestinian revolution.
  • Barquq Castle: A fortress in Khan Yunis built in the 1300s by Sultan Barquq. 

This list provides a glimpse into the rich history of Gaza as reflected in its cultural heritage sites and monuments existing before the events of November 2023. 

My 3^rd Q. – ‘During the recent war in Gaza what notable Cultural Heritage Sites and Monuments have been destroyed and how?’

AI – During the recent war in Gaza, numerous notable cultural heritage sites and monuments were destroyed or severely damaged, primarily by Israeli bombardments. UNESCO has verified damage to at least 110 sites since October 2023. 

Major historical and archaeological sites

• The Great Omari Mosque
• , Gaza City: This historic mosque, the largest and oldest in Gaza, was largely destroyed by an Israeli airstrike in December 2023. Built on the foundations of a Philistine temple and later a Byzantine church, the mosque and its library containing rare 14th-century manuscripts were reduced to rubble, with only the minaret partly remaining.

• Church of Saint Porphyrius
• , Gaza City: An Israeli airstrike hit the campus of the third-oldest church in the world in October 2023, killing 18 people who were sheltering there. While the main church building initially survived, it has since been damaged by continued attacks.

• Qasr Al-Basha (Pasha Palace), Gaza City: This 13th-century palace, which functioned as an archaeology museum, was bombed and bulldozed during the invasion. An airstrike in December 2023 damaged its walls, courtyard, and gardens.
• Hamam al-Sammara, Gaza City: This 13th or 14th-century bathhouse, one of Gaza’s most significant monuments, was almost completely destroyed in December 2023.

• Anthedon Harbour (Blakhiya Byzantine Cemetery), Gaza City: Gaza’s first known seaport, and a UNESCO-tentative World Heritage site dating to 800 BCE, was reportedly completely destroyed by Israeli military action.

• Monastery of Saint Hilarion/Tell Umm Amer, Nuseirat: This 4th-century Christian monastery complex has been in an area of intense fighting. While UNESCO has granted it enhanced protection, the site was added to the World Heritage in Danger list in 2024 due to the conflict.
• Ard-al-Moharbeen (Roman Necropolis), Gaza City: This ancient Roman cemetery, discovered in 2022 and undergoing excavation, was damaged by rockets in October 2023 and is considered at risk.
• Tell el-Ajjul
• , Khan Yunis: This fortified city, dating back to 2000–1800 BCE, was damaged by bombardment. 

Cultural institutions and archives

• Gaza Central Archives:  The Central Archives, which housed thousands of historical documents important to Gazan history, were destroyed by Israeli bombardment in December 2023.

• Rashad Shawa Cultural Center, Gaza City:  This center was destroyed by Israeli shelling in November 2023. It contained a theater and a library with thousands of books and was used as a civilian shelter.

• Rafah Museum:  The Rafah Museum, which housed a collection of ancient coins and other heritage items, was destroyed in an airstrike in October 2023.

• Al Qarara Cultural Museum:  This museum was destroyed by an Israeli airstrike early in the conflict.

• Israa University:  The main building of the university, including its library and national museum, was deliberately destroyed with mines by the IDF in January 2024. 

Methods of destruction

• Airstrikes: Bombardment from the air was a primary method of destruction for many sites, including the 
• Great Omari Mosque , the Church of Saint Porphyrius, and multiple museums.

• Shelling: Israeli shelling was responsible for destroying the 
• Rashad Shawa Cultural Center and damaging other historical buildings.

• Bulldozing and Demolition: Some sites, like parts of the Old City of Gaza and some cemeteries, were razed by bulldozers. The main building of 
• Israa University was demolished using mines.

• Disrespect and looting: Incidents of IDF soldiers burning books and looting museum artifacts have also been reported. 

Wider context

• Targeting accusations: The destruction of cultural sites is considered a potential war crime under international law, and some have characterized the actions as “cultural genocide”.
• Military justification: Israeli officials have stated that cultural sites were only targeted if used by Hamas for military purposes, which Hamas denies. The IDF claims to operate in accordance with international law to mitigate civilian harm.
• Scale of damage: The devastation has left much of Gaza’s historical urban fabric in ruins. In February 2024, the Palestinian Ministry of Culture reported that approximately 200 historic buildings and numerous cultural centers were damaged or destroyed. Restoration of the damaged sites could take many years and substantial funding.’

My 4^th Q. – ‘What notable Cultural Heritage Sites and Monuments exist in Gaza today?’

AI – ‘Prior to the recent war, Gaza was rich in cultural heritage, with over 325 registered sites reflecting millennia of history under different civilizations. As of 2024, many of Gaza’s most notable cultural heritage sites have been damaged or destroyed. 

Religious sites

• The Great Omari Mosque: The oldest and most renowned mosque in Gaza City, it was converted from a 5th-century Byzantine church and rebuilt several times throughout its history. The mosque was severely damaged by an airstrike in December 2023.
• The Church of Saint Porphyrius: This 4th-century Greek Orthodox church is one of the world’s oldest active places of worship. An Israeli airstrike on the church campus killed 18 people who were sheltering there in October 2023.
• Sayed al-Hashim Mosque: A 12th-century mosque located in Gaza’s al-Daraj neighborhood, it houses the tomb of Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, the great-grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad. It was damaged during the conflict.
• Ibn Uthman Mosque: A 15th-century mosque in Gaza’s Shuja’iyya neighborhood, it was destroyed by an airstrike in July 2024.
• Saint Hilarion Monastery (Tell Umm Amer): A 4th-century Christian monastery in central Gaza, it was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage and Endangered lists in 2024. However, it was also damaged during the conflict.’

See also:

• Gaza Strip: Damage assessment – UNESCO is conducting a preliminary damage assessment for cultural properties through remote monitoring based on satellite imagery and analysis provided by UNITAR/UNOSAT, as on-the-ground assessments are impossible in the current situation. Gaza Strip: Damage assessment | UNESCO

‘As of 27 May 2025, UNESCO has verified damage to 110 sites since 7 October 2023 – 13 religious sites, 77 buildings of historical and/or artistic interest, 3 depositories of movable cultural property, 9 monuments, 1 museum and 7 archaeological sites.’

• Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip: Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip – Wikipedia
• A ‘cultural genocide’: Which of Gaza’s heritage sites have been destroyed? –Nearly 200 sites of historical importance have been destroyed or damaged in Israeli air raids on the Palestinian enclave in the past 100 days. A ‘cultural genocide’: Which of Gaza’s heritage sites have been destroyed? | Israel-Palestine conflict News | Al Jazeera

My 5^th Q. – ‘What Questions have been raised at Prime Minister’s Questions and what Debate has taken place in the UK Parliament about the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘UK Parliamentarians have repeatedly raised concerns about the destruction of cultural heritage in Gaza through debates and written questions, reflecting the broader international focus on the war’s impact beyond the humanitarian crisis. 

While no specific questions on cultural heritage were found in Prime Minister’s Questions (PMQs), the topic has been highlighted in other parliamentary forums. A significant focus of questions and debate has also been on accountability and the UK government’s diplomatic and economic response. 

Parliamentary debates

Key debates in the House of Commons and House of Lords since October 2023 have addressed the Gaza conflict, with the destruction of cultural heritage being a related, though not always central, concern. 

• Adjournment debate (April 2025): The UK Parliament held an adjournment debate on the Occupied Palestinian Territories. The discussion covered the long history of the conflict and human rights concerns, providing context for the destruction of cultural property.
• House of Lords debate (June 2025): In a debate on the conflict, speakers discussed the catastrophic humanitarian situation in Gaza and raised broader concerns about Israeli actions and human rights abuses.
• Middle East debate (March 2025): A debate in the House of Commons on the conflict in Gaza highlighted the widespread devastation and called for a ceasefire, referencing the brutality of Hamas and the harrowing details of the conflict. 

Written questions

Written questions submitted by MPs have provided detailed scrutiny on specific issues, including cultural and educational institutions. 

• Question 34308 (February 2025): The UK Parliament recorded a question specifically concerning “Gaza: Culture and Educational Institutions”. In its response, the government noted that “the destruction of cultural facilities is also highly concerning,” but did not provide specifics on what action would be taken.
• Committee evidence (December 2024): Written evidence submitted to a parliamentary committee detailed “incomprehensible damage” to cultural heritage sites and drew attention to the “intentional and methodical destruction of cultural institutions” as an attempt to deny Palestinian culture. The evidence called on the UK government to use its influence to hold Israel accountable and to enforce the 1970 UNESCO convention on cultural property. 

UK government statements

Statements from the UK government and Prime Minister have acknowledged the severe situation in Gaza and its impact on infrastructure, though the direct focus is often on the humanitarian crisis and achieving a ceasefire. 

• Statement on Gaza (December 2024): A UK statement at the UN Security Council noted that “Israel’s expansion of military infrastructure and the destruction of civilian buildings and agricultural land across the Strip is unacceptable”. While not solely focused on cultural sites, this reflects official recognition of the extensive destruction.
• Prime Minister’s statement (August 2025): Prime Minister Keir Starmer issued a statement in August 2025 urging Israel to reconsider its plans to take control of Gaza City. The PM noted that such actions would “only bring more bloodshed” and highlighted the need for a ceasefire and a diplomatic solution. 

Broader context

The discussions around cultural heritage destruction in the UK Parliament have taken place within the wider context of:

• Calls for an immediate and permanent ceasefire.
• Concerns over the humanitarian crisis and restrictions on aid.
• The conduct of the Israeli military and broader human rights concerns.
• UK foreign policy regarding Israel and Palestine, including the prospect of recognising a Palestinian state.’

My 6^th Q. – ‘What Questions have been raised and what Debate has taken place in the United Nations General Assembly about the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘At the UN General Assembly (UNGA), the destruction of cultural heritage in Gaza has been raised in the context of broader debates and resolutions concerning the humanitarian situation and alleged war crimes. While the UNGA has not focused solely on cultural heritage, the issue has been highlighted by member states, UN bodies, and non-governmental organizations as part of the total devastation wrought by the conflict. 

Key questions and debates raised

1. Is the destruction of cultural heritage a war crime?

• This central question was raised in December 2023 when South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), accusing it of violating the 1948 Genocide Convention.
• South Africa’s evidence included allegations that Israel’s actions amounted to “cultural genocide,” with widespread destruction of mosques, churches, universities, museums, and historical sites intended to erase Palestinian cultural identity.
• The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court classifies the intentional destruction of cultural heritage as a war crime. Israel has denied that it intentionally targets cultural sites, stating its military operations are in line with international law. 

2. Is the destruction systematic and intentional?

• Debates have included accusations from groups like the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor that Israel is systematically targeting archaeological and cultural sites.
• In contrast, Israel has maintained that it only attacks legitimate military targets.
• Analysis of the damage has raised questions about military necessity and potential violations of international humanitarian law, particularly the 1907 and 1954 Hague Conventions. 

3. What is the UN’s role in protection and investigation?

• A key debate is the role of UN agencies, particularly UNESCO, in responding to the crisis. In November 2023, UNESCO passed a resolution on the “Impact and consequences of the current situation in the Gaza Strip,” calling for an emergency assistance program and adhering to relevant conventions.
• Some organizations, such as the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor, have pressed UNESCO to do more, including dispatching fact-finding missions.
• The UN Human Rights Council’s Commission of Inquiry has also investigated all alleged violations of international law in Gaza and Israel. 

Broader UNGA actions and context

While the UNGA has not passed a standalone resolution on cultural heritage in Gaza, it has engaged in the issue as part of broader efforts to address the crisis:

• Emergency special sessions: The UNGA has held multiple emergency special sessions on the situation in Gaza. In a June 2025 session, the UNGA overwhelmingly adopted a resolution demanding an immediate and unconditional ceasefire and the release of all hostages.
• Emphasis on international law: Throughout the conflict, UN bodies have repeatedly called on all parties to strictly adhere to international law, with UNESCO stating that cultural property should not be targeted or used for military purposes.
• Resolution on return of cultural property: In December 2024, the UNGA passed a resolution on the return of cultural property to countries of origin, expressing grave concern over the rise in theft and trafficking during armed conflict. While not Gaza-specific, it underscored the international community’s concern over cultural property protection. 

Evidence of cultural heritage destruction

The debates and questions raised in the UNGA are supported by extensive documentation from various sources, including:

• UNESCO damage assessments: UNESCO has continuously monitored and verified damage to numerous cultural sites in Gaza through remote sensing and satellite imagery. As of June 2025, it had verified damage to over 50 sites, a number that grew over the course of the conflict.
• Reporting by cultural heritage organizations: The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) Palestine has issued urgent heritage alerts documenting the destruction of landmarks like the historic Souk Al-Qaisariyya and the Souk Al-Zawiya.
• Palestinian Ministry of Culture reports: The ministry has published reports detailing the impact on cultural institutions and historic buildings, confirming extensive damage.
• International Court of Justice filings: The evidence submitted by South Africa to the ICJ has been cited in debates concerning the scale and intent of the destruction.’

‘My 7h Q. – ‘What submissions have been presented at the ICJ about about the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘While there’s no specific ICJ submission focused solely on the destruction of cultural heritage in Gaza, the broader case of South Africa v. Israel (genocide allegations) mentions the destruction of homes and other structures as evidence of genocidal actions. This destruction was part of a larger pattern of actions that South Africa argued were intended to destroy a substantial part of the Palestinian group in Gaza. 

Key Details from the South Africa v. Israel Case: 

• Accusation:

South Africa alleged that Israel’s actions in Gaza were “genocidal in character”.

• Evidence cited:

The destruction of homes and other buildings was listed as a specific type of action that supported the accusation of genocide.

• Goal:

South Africa argued that these acts, along with the killing of Palestinians and the blockade of aid, were committed with the specific intent to destroy Palestinians in Gaza.

How it Relates to Cultural Heritage:

While the case does not contain a separate filing specifically about cultural heritage, the destruction of homes and structures can be seen as an attack on the cultural fabric of Gaza. The loss of these buildings has a significant impact on the heritage and cultural identity of the Palestinian people.’

My 8^th Q. – ‘What percentage of the entire Tangible Cultural Heritage of the Palestinian People has been destroyed in Gaza since November 2023?’

AI – ‘An exact percentage of the entire Palestinian Tangible Cultural Heritage destroyed in Gaza since November 2023 is not available, due to ongoing conflict and difficulties with comprehensive assessment. However, various organizations have provided estimates on the destruction of cultural sites within the Gaza Strip. The figures differ because they rely on various reporting periods, methodologies, and source materials. 

Estimated percentages of cultural site destruction

• More than two-thirds: A March 2025 Guardian article, citing Palestinian and UK-based archaeological experts, estimated that more than two-thirds of Gaza’s heritage, cultural, and archaeological sites had been damaged.
• 60%: A June 2024 report in the anthropology magazine SAPIENS cited the Israeli NGO Emek Shaveh and estimated that about 60% of culturally significant sites in Gaza had been destroyed or severely damaged during the first six months of the war.
• Around 50%: A November 2024 article from The Conversation, authored by archaeologists working to document Gaza’s heritage, estimated that around 50% of the Gaza Strip’s heritage sites had been damaged.
• Over 100 sites: An August 2024 report by the United Nations Independent International Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli forces have caused damage to more than half of all religious and cultural sites in Gaza. 

Key challenges in calculation

• Incomplete inventory: The ongoing conflict makes it nearly impossible to conduct full on-the-ground surveys. Before October 2023, the historical sites of Gaza were already under pressure and inadequately cataloged.
• Intangible heritage: The question of tangible cultural heritage is separate from intangible heritage, such as traditions and customs, which are also being destroyed through the conflict.
• Defining the scope: It is also difficult to define what constitutes the “entire Tangible Cultural Heritage of the Palestinian People,” as this would encompass sites beyond the Gaza Strip, including in the West Bank and East Jerusalem, where heritage sites have also been affected. 

Notable sites affected

Damage reports have highlighted the destruction of numerous historically and culturally significant sites across Gaza, including: 

• The Great Omari Mosque
• The Church of Saint Porphyrius
• The medieval Qasr al-Basha (Pasha’s Palace)
• The ancient port of Anthedon
• The Central Archives of Gaza City
• The Rashad Shawa Cultural Center.’ 

My 8^th Q. – ‘Have any Israeli Government Ministers and members of the IDF ever made any statement about the destruction of everything in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Yes, multiple Israeli government ministers and members of the IDF have made statements about the destruction of parts or all of Gaza. The rhetoric, documented by numerous sources, has included calls to “wipe Gaza off the face of the Earth,” inflict widespread destruction, and displace its population. Some of these remarks have been cited as evidence in the genocide case against Israel at the International Court of Justice. 

Statements by Israeli government ministers

• Bezalel Smotrich, the Finance Minister, has repeatedly discussed the destruction of Gaza. In May 2025, he reportedly stated that “Gaza will be entirely destroyed” and its population would “leave in great numbers to third countries”.
• Itamar Ben-Gvir, the National Security Minister, has called for measures to starve Hamas by cutting off aid and has insisted that Hamas be “destroyed”.
• Amichai Eliyahu, the Heritage Minister, made headlines in November 2023 for suggesting that a nuclear bomb be dropped on Gaza. In July 2025, he was quoted as saying, “The government is racing to wipe out Gaza”.
• Yoav Gallant, the former Defense Minister, announced a “complete siege” of Gaza in October 2023, cutting off electricity, food, and fuel. He also referred to Palestinians in Gaza as “human animals”.
• Nissim Vaturi, Vice President of the Knesset, has delivered multiple tirades calling to “wipe Gaza off the face of the Earth”. 

Statements and actions by IDF members

While senior IDF leadership typically uses more careful language, numerous reports document statements and actions by soldiers that have contributed to this rhetoric.

• Online media: In the months since October 2023, thousands of photos and videos from Gaza have been posted on social media by IDF soldiers. These have shown soldiers blowing up buildings, looting homes, and making calls for revenge.
• Soldier testimony: An investigative report by The Washington Post in December 2024 featured interviews with soldiers who said they had been instructed to burn civilian homes. One soldier described feeling a “very, very strong sense of revenge from everybody” in his unit.
• Disciplinary actions: The IDF has acknowledged that some of these incidents “deviated from IDF values” and has conducted disciplinary talks with some soldiers.
• Ezra Yachin, a 95-year-old army reservist brought in to motivate troops, was filmed inciting soldiers to “erase the memory” of Palestinians. 

Widespread and dehumanizing rhetoric

Beyond specific calls for destruction, the rhetoric has been documented by human rights organizations as widely dehumanizing and inflammatory:

• Biblical analogies: Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has repeatedly invoked the biblical story of Amalek to justify the scale of the destruction in Gaza.
• Accusations of genocide: The incendiary statements by Israeli officials have been systematically documented by human rights organizations like Amnesty International and have been highlighted by South Africa in its genocide case against Israel at the ICJ.’ 

My 9^th Q. – ‘Have any British made and supplied arms been used in the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Multiple organizations have reported that British-made components are used in Israeli military equipment, including F-35 fighter jets, that has been deployed in Gaza, where widespread destruction of cultural heritage has occurred

. However, there is no direct public confirmation that British arms specifically caused damage to a particular heritage site. 

Links between UK arms and Gaza destruction

• F-35 components: UK-based companies, including BAE Systems, produce about 15% of the components for the F-35 fighter jet, which has been used by Israel during the conflict in Gaza. The UK government has continued to supply these parts, citing the jet’s importance to NATO security.
• Other military hardware: The UK has also supplied other military goods to Israel, such as components for drones and other military aircraft. In September 2024, the UK government suspended some of these export licenses, acknowledging a “clear risk” they could be used in serious violations of international humanitarian law.
• Previous use of UK arms: British-made arms have been used by Israeli forces in Gaza in previous conflicts. For example, the government admitted that UK-supplied components were used in military equipment during the 2008–2009 conflict. 

Destruction of cultural heritage in Gaza

Numerous reports have documented the extensive destruction of Gaza’s cultural heritage during the conflict. 

• The UN has found that Israeli forces have damaged more than half of all religious and cultural sites.
• A March 2025 article in The Guardian cited experts estimating that over two-thirds of Gaza’s heritage, cultural, and archaeological sites have been damaged.
• Specific sites that have been affected include:
  • The Great Omari Mosque

The Monastery of St. Hilarion (Tall Umm `Amir)

Archaeological sites and historic buildings. 

Legal and ethical considerations

• The 1954 Hague Convention: This international agreement protects cultural property during armed conflict. The UK could be found complicit in violations if it aids or assists in crimes that violate the convention.
• Due diligence: The UK government has been repeatedly warned by lawyers and NGOs that its continued arms exports risk complicity in war crimes, including the destruction of cultural heritage.
• Difficulty in tracing: The opaque nature of global supply chains for military equipment, especially via “open licences” that permit unlimited exports, makes it very difficult to definitively trace how specific components are used. 

The debate continues regarding the extent of the UK’s legal and moral responsibility, particularly concerning its continued involvement in the F-35 program.’

My 10^th Q. – ‘Which UK Government Ministers have approved the sale and supply of British made arms and parts used by Israel in the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Multiple UK Ministers from different parties have overseen the arms supply to Israel, which has included components used in Gaza. While specific Ministers have not been named for approving the destruction of cultural heritage, the UK Government has faced scrutiny for its approval of weapon sales and has, at times, restricted or cancelled export licenses due to concerns about the misuse of British arms, such as during the 2008-09 Gaza conflict, according to Oxfam. 

Key Points:

• Historical Oversight:

British Ministers from various political backgrounds (Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrat) have been involved in decisions regarding arms exports to Israel. 

• Accusations of Misuse:

There have been instances where British-supplied components were used by Israel in actions in Gaza, leading to apologies from UK officials and the cancellation of some licenses. 

• Policy Changes:

In response to misuse concerns, the UK government has, at various times, suspended licenses for arms exports to Israel, such as in 2009 and during a review in 2014. 

• Ongoing Scrutiny:

The UK government has continued to face pressure and criticism regarding its arms sales and the ongoing conflict in Gaza, particularly with recent developments in late 2024. 

• Specific Individuals:

No specific Minister has been named for approving the sale of British arms for the specific purpose of destroying cultural heritage in Gaza. Rather, it’s a collective government decision-making process where the policy of supplying arms to Israel has been overseen by various administrations over time.’ 

My 11^th Q. – ‘In so far as this is public knowledge, has any legal advice been provided to UK Government Ministers by the Foreign Office Legal Department about approving export licences for the sale of arms and parts to Israel which Israel is using to destroy Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Yes, Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) Legal Department advice informs government ministers’ decisions on arms export licences to Israel, though the specifics of this advice remain confidential. This legal guidance was instrumental in the government’s repeated decisions not to suspend arms exports, until a review in September 2024 concluded there was a clear risk of serious violations of International Humanitarian Law (IHL), leading to the suspension of around 30 licences. 

Before the September 2024 Suspension 

• Confidential Advice:

The FCDO Legal Department provides advice to ministers, which remains confidential.

• Initial Decisions:

For months prior to September 2024, ministers were advised that there was “good evidence to support a judgment that Israel is committed to comply with IHL”.

• Maintaining Licences:

Based on this legal advice, the government did not suspend or revoke export licences for arms to Israel.

The September 2024 Shift

• Updated IHL Assessment:

Foreign Secretary David Lammy commissioned a new assessment of Israel’s compliance with IHL in the context of the Gaza war. 

• Government Decision:

The UK government, acting on this fresh assessment and likely informed by the FCDO legal department, determined there was a clear risk that certain military exports could be used to commit or facilitate serious violations of IHL. 

• Suspension of Licences:

Consequently, the government suspended approximately 30 arms export licences for items like components for fighter aircraft, drones, and targeting systems. 

Ongoing Context

• High Court Review:

A High Court case challenged the government’s decision to continue to supply spare parts for F-35 jets, arguing the parts could still be used for military operations in Gaza. The court ultimately rejected the case, stating it lacked the constitutional authority to intervene. 

• Confidentiality of Advice:

The government maintains that the content of its legal advice is confidential.’

My 12^th Q. – ‘Has any civil servant in the UK Foreign Office resigned about the approval of export licences for the sale of arms and parts to Israel which Israel is using to destroy Cultural Heritage in Gaza?’

AI – ‘Yes, a UK Foreign Office civil servant, Mark Smith, resigned in August 2024 in protest over the UK’s policy on arms sales to Israel. He stated that he raised concerns about potential war crimes and violations of international humanitarian law, including the misuse of UK-supplied arms, through official channels, but received only basic acknowledgments. His resignation email detailed concerns about the handling of arms export policies, with Smith alleging that officials were instructed to manipulate findings and that his reports were altered to portray compliance with the law. 

Details of Mark Smith’s Resignation

• Resignation Date: August 2024 
• Reason: Protest against the UK government’s approval of arms sales to Israel. 
• Role: Smith was a Foreign Office official who had worked on counter-terrorism and previously on Middle East arms export licensing assessment. 
• Allegations:
  • He claimed that officials were witnessing “clear and unquestionable examples” of war crimes and breaches of international humanitarian law by Israel in Gaza. 
  • He stated he raised these concerns at every level of the Foreign Office, including through the official whistleblowing mechanism. 
  • He alleged that reports he drafted were edited by senior colleagues to give the impression that the UK was in compliance with the law, rather than reflecting the reality of the situation. 
• Outcome: He resigned and sent a widely distributed email to colleagues, detailing his experiences. 

Context

• In September 2024, the UK government suspended about 30 arms export licences to Israel, citing risks of serious violations of international humanitarian law. 
• This action followed pressure from parliamentarians and civil society groups regarding the use of UK arms in the conflict in Gaza. 
• The Foreign Office declined to comment on individual cases but stated the government’s commitment to international law.’

My 13^th Q. – ‘Has any group of civil servants in the UK Foreign Office expressed concern about the approval of export licences for the sale of arms and parts to Israel?

AI – ‘Yes, multiple groups of UK Foreign Office (FCDO) civil servants have expressed concern over arms exports to Israel, with some staff resigning and others formally challenging the government’s stance on international law violations. Concerns, stemming from potential complicity in violating international humanitarian law, led to a collective letter in July 2024 and a formal resignation in August 2024 from a Foreign Office official. 

Specific Instances of Concern:

• FCDO staff collective letter:

In July 2024, staff formally expressed concern regarding Israel’s potential violations of international humanitarian law and the UK’s perceived complicity through continued weapons exports, according to The Guardian. 

• Mark Smith’s resignation:

In August 2024, a Foreign Office official named Mark Smith resigned in protest over the UK’s refusal to ban arms exports to Israel due to alleged breaches of international law, BBC News reports. 

• Government response to staff:

After the collective expression of concern, the FCDO responded by suggesting that civil servants with profound policy disagreements should consider resigning, as reported by The Guardian. 

Context of the Concerns:

• The concerns were driven by events such as the killing of humanitarian workers in Gaza and accusations of Israel using starvation as a weapon of war, with staff arguing that the UK’s policy contributed to the erosion of global norms, according to The Guardian. 
• Despite these concerns, the UK government did suspend about 30 arms export licences in September 2024 after an assessment found a risk of serious violations of international humanitarian law. 
• However, the suspension excluded F-35 aircraft components, which a High Court ruling later upheld as being a lawful government decision, despite concerns raised by the International Development Committee, notes UK Parliament’ 

See also more generally:

• ‘Foreign Office Bosses Have a Suggestion for Staff With Gaza Conscience: Resign’: Foreign Office Bosses Have a Suggestion for Staff With Gaza Conscience: Resign | Novara Media
• Genocide In The WEST BANK – Israel’s Terrifying PROMISE: Genocide In The WEST BANK – Israel’s Terrifying PROMISE – YouTube
• “Every Gaza Child Should Starve To Death”, Demands Leading Israeli: “Every Gaza Child Should Starve To Death”, Demands Leading Israeli
• Israel’s OWN LAWYER Admits Grave War Crimes: Israel’s OWN LAWYER Admits Grave War Crimes
• Gaza Is The Worst CRIME Of The CENTURY – w./ UN Official Martin Griffiths: Gaza Is The Worst CRIME Of The CENTURY – w./ UN Official Martin Griffiths – YouTube
• The BBC Hide The Truth About Israel’s Genocide – AGAIN: The BBC Hide The Truth About Israel’s Genocide – AGAIN – YouTube
• Israel Is Shooting Babies In The Head – Gaza Doctor Nick Maynard: Israel Is Shooting Babies In The Head – Gaza Doctor Nick Maynard
• This Gaza Interview Will CHANGE YOU – w./ Dr Mo aka The Beast From The Middle East: This Gaza Interview Will CHANGE YOU – w./ Dr Mo aka The Beast From The Middle East
• Fmr. Green Beret Tony Aguilar Details Disturbing Gaza War Crimes: Fmr. Green Beret Tony Aguilar Details Disturbing Gaza War Crimes
• US Green Beret Veteran Tony Aguilar Details the Shocking War Crimes He’s Witnessing in Gaza: US Green Beret Veteran Tony Aguilar Details the Shocking War Crimes He’s Witnessing in Gaza – YouTube
• Whistleblower Tony Aguilar Responds to Attacks After Exposing Israel’s War Crimes in Gaza: Whistleblower Tony Aguilar Responds to Attacks After Exposing Israel’s War Crimes in Gaza – YouTube
• We found the Israel lobbyist who paid Keir Starmer and David Lammy: We found the Israel lobbyist who paid Keir Starmer and David Lammy
• We found the Israeli soldiers SECRETLY being trained by Britain: We found the Israeli soldiers SECRETLY being trained by Britain

My 1st Q. – ‘Did Islamic culture influence the development of educational institutions like the Inns of Court?’

AI – ‘Yes, Islamic culture likely influenced the Inns of Court through the madrasa system, which provided a model for law-focused educational institutions with perpetual endowments, attached lodging, and organized legal instruction. However, the extent of this influence is debated, with some scholars suggesting it was minimal while others, like George Makdisi, argue for a significant connection, particularly through mercenary Templars in the Levant. 

The Madrasa as a Model

• Purpose:

Madrasas were educational institutions for Islamic law, theology, and other subjects, often linked to mosques. 

• Structure:

They typically included a mosque, lodging for students, and a library, creating a comprehensive educational environment. 

• Endowments:

Madrasas were often supported by a waqf, a charitable endowment that guaranteed their financial independence and long-term operation, a system also seen in the foundation of Merton College in England. 

The Templar Connection

• Transporting Ideas:

Some theories suggest the Knights Templar, after being present in the Levant, may have imported the madrasa model to England, leading to the development of the Inns of Court. 

• Similarities:

The Inns of Court, like the madrasas, served as lodging and a meeting place for lawyers and law students, and were attached to religious institutions. 

Counterarguments and Nuances

• Timing of Suppression:

The Templars were suppressed in 1314, but legal scholars only began to congregate in the Inns of Court in the 1360s, making a direct connection less likely. 

• Independent Development:

English law developed independently, and the Inns of Court could have evolved from existing Roman and Germanic legal traditions rather than from Islamic influence. 

Conclusion

While the direct link remains a subject of scholarly debate, the similarities in structure, purpose, and endowment between the Islamic madrasas and the later-developed Inns of Court suggest a possible, though perhaps indirect, cultural exchange of educational ideas.’ 

My 2nd Q. – ‘Did Islamic art develop a complex tradition of abstract, geometric, and calligraphic designs to express profound spiritual meaning?’

AI – ‘Yes, Islamic art developed a complex tradition of abstract, geometric, and calligraphic designs to express profound spiritual meaning. This emphasis on non-figurative art is rooted in the Islamic principle of aniconism, which discourages the depiction of sentient beings, especially divine figures, to avoid idolatry. Instead of reproducing the physical world, artists sought to represent the transcendent qualities of God and the cosmos. 

The significance of geometric patterns

Islamic geometric patterns are meticulously constructed designs that hold deep spiritual symbolism. 

• The infinite nature of God: The repeating and interlocking patterns, which have no visible beginning or end, serve as a visual metaphor for the unending, eternal nature of Allah.
• Divine order and unity: The symmetry and order of geometric designs reflect the equilibrium of the universe and the concept of Tawhid (the oneness of God). This visual harmony evokes a sense of divine order in creation.
• A tool for reflection: The complex nature of these designs, built from simple forms like the circle and the square, is meant to inspire contemplation. They draw the viewer’s attention away from the material world and toward spiritual truths. 

Exploring the Beauty of Geometric Patterns in Islamic Decor

Oct 7, 2024 — Exploring the Beauty of Geometric Patterns in Islamic Decor * Islamic decor is renowned for its intricate beauty and profound meanings. One of the most captivat…

modernwallarts.com

Role of Spirituality in Islamic Decorative Arts – Muslim Heritage

Aug 22, 2024 — These tenets denote the deepest aspirations of humanity, but none can be fully realized when someone is restricted to the confines of purely material existence.

Muslim Heritage

The spiritual language of calligraphy

Arabic calligraphy is the most revered form of Islamic art and is used to transform sacred words into a visual medium of devotion. 

• Vessels of divine revelation: As the script of the Qur’an, calligraphy is seen as a conduit for the divine word. The act of creating it is considered a form of worship and meditation.
• Symbolic of divine energy: The flowing, dynamic curves of calligraphic scripts, such as Diwani and Thuluth, reflect the dynamic and ongoing energy of the divine.
• Architectural messages: Calligraphy is frequently integrated into architecture, adorning the walls of mosques, domes, and mihrabs (prayer niches) with Qur’anic verses. This practice integrates spiritual meaning directly into the sacred space. 

The arabesque

The arabesque is a distinct decorative motif that features rhythmic, linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing plant motifs. 

• Eternity and continuous growth: The flowing, continuous lines of the arabesque symbolize the unending, perpetual nature of creation. These stylized plant forms are an expression of the natural world, representing paradise.
• Harmonious complexity: Arabesques are often combined with geometric patterns and calligraphy, adding a layer of organic beauty that balances the mathematical precision of the other elements. 

The role of the artist

In this tradition, the focus is not on the artist’s individual expression but on the divine beauty being channeled. This anonymity was a way for artists to show humility and transform their creative process into an act of worship, elevating the focus to the divine rather than the self. 

My 3rd Q. – ‘Do Penrose Tiles appear in any ancient Islamic Art?’

AI – ‘Yes, quasiperiodic, or Penrose-style, tilings have been found in 15th-century Islamic art, notably on the Darb-i Imam shrine in Iran, which displays a near-perfect example of such a pattern. These patterns, called girih tilings, demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of geometry that predates the modern discovery of Penrose tiles by some 500 years.
 

Key Findings

• Girih Tiles:

Physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt discovered that Islamic artisans used a set of simple, complex-shaped tiles called “girih” (which means “knot” in Persian) to create these complex, non-repeating patterns. 

• Darb-i Imam Shrine:

The most famous example is on the façade of the Darb-i Imam shrine, built in 1453. When analyzed, this pattern almost exactly matches a Penrose tiling. 

• Advanced Geometry:

This discovery indicates a much higher level of mathematical understanding in medieval Islamic culture than previously assumed, as they developed these patterns through local rules of subdividing and overlapping tiles rather than simple compass-and-ruler methods. 

• Wider Presence:

Further research identified similar non-periodic tiling patterns in various Islamic structures and artifacts dating from the 10th to the 15th century, found in locations such as Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and India. 

In essence, while the term “Penrose tiles” refers to a modern mathematical concept, the aesthetic and mathematical principles behind them were evidently applied in ancient Islamic art and architecture centuries before their Western “discovery”. 

My 4th Q. – ‘What do quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles symbolise in Art and Science?’

AI – ‘In Art and Science, quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles symbolize the blending of order and chaos, representing the unexpected beauty found in complex, non-repeating patterns that adhere to underlying mathematical rules. In art, they can represent the human search for deeper meaning and connection, while in science, they explain the existence of quasicrystals, a new state of matter with novel symmetries, linking them to new material properties and scientific understanding.
 

In Art:

• Beauty of Mathematical Order:

The tiles symbolize the inherent beauty and wonder of mathematical rules, which, despite their simplicity, can generate infinitely complex patterns. 

• Human Creativity and Infinity:

Incorporating these tiles into art can be a way to express the beauty of mathematical order and the boundless possibilities of human creativity, showing how fundamental principles can lead to endlessly varied results. 

• Search for Meaning:

For some, Penrose tilings symbolize the universal and relentless human quest to find a connecting thread in the universe, representing the deeper meaning or reason behind life and existence, according to Medium. 

• Order within Complexity:

The tiles illustrate the concept of order within what appears to be chaotic or unpredictable, as the specific arrangement of tiles is infinitely complex, but the overarching rules for their placement are consistent. 

In Science:

• Quasicrystals and New Materials:

The most direct scientific application of Penrose-style tiling is in explaining the formation of quasicrystals, a completely new state of matter that combines properties of crystals and non-crystalline substances. 

• Forbidden Symmetries:

Penrose tiles reveal novel symmetries, such as five-fold symmetry, which are “forbidden” in ordinary crystals but allow for quasiperiodic atomic arrangements in quasicrystals. 

• Understanding Atomic Structures:

The patterns provide insights into the complex but non-repeating atomic structures of quasicrystals, helping scientists understand why these unique materials form and exhibit their unique properties. 

• Technological Applications:

The study of quasicrystals has led to the development of new materials with applications in various fields, including razor blades, surgical instruments, heat insulation, and devices that convert heat to electricity.’ 

As far as I am aware there are no quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles anywhere in the Inns of Court. This would suggest that the architects of Templar buildings in the Inns of Court were either: (i) ignorant of the existence of quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles; (ii) did not understand the significance of the geometric patterns underlying quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles; or (iii) that they did, and decided that this sacred geometry was not significant, or that in some way the existence of these patterns, which are found in nature, contradicted the belief system of their religious order.

It appears that Quasiperiodic or Penrose-style tiles do not appear anywhere in Templar architecture.

AI – ‘Penrose tiling was discovered in the 1970s by Roger Penrose, but similar, non-repeating, complex geometric patterns called girih were used in medieval Islamic architecture centuries earlier. 

It is important to distinguish Penrose tiling from earlier medieval Islamic geometric patterns (girih). 

• Islamic architects and mathematicians used complex, non-repeating patterns called girih around the 13th century. 
• These patterns share similarities with Penrose tiling, but they are distinct and originated in Islamic art and mathematics, not in Europe during the Templar period. 

Therefore, while quasiperiodic patterns have ancient roots in other architectural traditions, they are not associated with Templar buildings.’ 

See also – Roger Penrose – Forbidden crystal symmetry in mathematics and architecture: Roger Penrose – Forbidden crystal symmetry in mathematics and architecture