AI – ‘Based on the surviving literary evidence, there is no clear indication that Plutarch believed Plato’s account of Atlantis was a pure allegory, and there is stronger evidence suggesting he took it as a historical, though perhaps embellished, tradition. 

Plutarch, writing in the early Roman Empire (c. 46–120 AD), treated the story as a “lost” historical record rather than a fictional story, and he specifically linked it to the transmission of knowledge from Egyptian priests to Solon, rather than an invention of Plato. 

Evidence in Plutarch’s Writings

• Life of Solon: In his biography of Solon, Plutarch describes the Atlantis story as a, “large description, or rather fabulous account [mythos]” that Solon heard from the priests of Saïs. However, in this context, “fabulous” (or mythos) in the ancient sense does not necessarily mean “fictional” (allegory), but rather a story passed down about a distant, grand event.
• A “Historical” Project: Plutarch notes that Solon attempted to turn this Egyptian account into a poem, and later, “Plato, ambitious to elaborate and adorn the subject of the lost Atlantis … began the work”. This description presents the story as a real, “unoccupied” history that Plato was expanding upon, not as a metaphor for the Republic.
• Unfinished Work: Plutarch mentions that Plato was “late in beginning, and ended his life before his work” was finished, treating the Critias as a piece of historical narrative that was simply left incomplete, rather than an allegory that didn’t need to be finished.
• No Explicit Mentions of Allegory: While modern scholars often view the Atlantis story as an allegory of the ideal state, there is no passage in Plutarch’s work that explicitly states, “Plato was using Atlantis as a symbol for his political theories,” or “Atlantis is not a real place”. 

The Context of Ancient Interpretation

• Crantor’s Influence: Earlier in the Hellenistic period, the academic philosopher Crantor (c. 300 BC) is often cited as treating the story as historical truth, a view that was prominent in the early Roman period.
• The Shift to Allegory: The interpretation of Atlantis as a pure allegory primarily grew in popularity later, with Proclus (5th century AD) reporting that earlier people were divided on the issue, but it was generally later philosophers who pushed for the “allegory only” interpretation. 

Therefore, Plutarch’s own words in the Life of Solon and his treatment of the Timaeus-Critias in his biographies suggest he accepted it as an ancient tradition passed down from Egypt, rather than a literary allegory created by Plato.’

AI – ‘Yes, researchers have identified various megalithic structures in the Azores, particularly on Terceira Island, which challenge the belief that the archipelago was uninhabited before the 15th-century Portuguese discovery. Key findings include structures similar to European passage graves, stone anchors, rock art, and, on some islands, mysterious stepped, pyramid-like structures. 

Key details regarding megalithic structures in the Azores include:

• Terceira Island Structures: Several megalithic sites, particularly in the Pico do Espigão area, feature stone constructions resembling passage graves (dolmens). These often include a corridor leading to a chamber, sometimes with ceiling stones weighing over 2 tons.
• Stone Art and Carvings: Many monolithic blocks show cup-marks and carvings, including “chess board” shapes similar to those found in Galician Copper Age sites.
• Pyramidal Structures: Numerous, often geometric, pyramid-shaped stone piles have been documented on several islands, sometimes aligning with astronomical events like solstices.
• Ancient Cart Ruts: Similar to those found in Malta, ancient “cart ruts” have been identified, suggesting, along with the structures, a far older human presence than previously thought.
• Uncertain Origins: While some scholars argue these prove pre-Portuguese settlement (possibly Phoenician or Carthaginian), others caution that many sites require more rigorous archaeological dating to rule out later, early-settler construction. 

These discoveries have prompted ongoing research into the possibility of a Pre-Portuguese human presence on the islands.’

My next Q. – ‘What is the estimated age of the Megalithic Structures discovered in the Azores?’

AI – ‘ Megalithic structures, including dolmens, passage graves, and stone circles, discovered primarily on Terceira Island in the Azores, have been tentatively dated by some researchers to span from the Neolithic Age (before ~3000 BC) through the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age (up to ~1000 BC). However, these findings are considered highly controversial, with many professional archaeologists in Portugal viewing them as pseudoscientific, often attributing the structures to natural volcanic formations or later, post-15th-century, agricultural, or temporary constructions. Key details regarding the dating of these sites include:

• Controversial Dating: Researcher A.F. Rodrigues has proposed, based on the analysis of ceramic shards found in a, “cylindrical hole,” in a, “megalithic construction” on Terceira Island, that the area was visited or inhabited around the XIth century AD (950 ± 30 BP) or earlier.
• Older Interpretations: Some reports suggest that the “rock art” (cup marks) and specific, “megalithic” structures, which are compared to European passage graves, suggest a prehistoric, pre-Portuguese, human presence.
• Lack of Consensus: The majority of archaeologists and historians maintain that the Azores were uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century.
• Alternative Findings: Other studies, based on lake sediment cores, have indicated human impact (such as livestock introduction and burning) as early as 700 CE – 850 CE, which is still centuries earlier than the official 1427/1431 discovery. 

While some, “megalithic-like”, constructions on Terceira and São Miguel are in the range of 2500–4000 years old, they are not universally accepted as human-made, with the “underwater pyramid” often cited in this context frequently debunked as a natural volcanic feature.’

So, some of these structures are over 6,000 years old.

AI – ‘The megalithic (or Cyclopean) retaining wall at the Pnyx, the site of the Athenian democratic assembly, was constructed in phases, with key sections dating to the late 5th century B.C., and significant renovations around 330 B.C.. The massive, mortarless limestone block wall was built to hold a terrace, with some phases estimated from roughly 500 B.C. through the 4th century B.C.. 

Key Details and Usage Examples:

• Purpose: The wall created a level, amphitheater-like space for the Ekklisia (Assembly) to hold meetings.
• Construction: The wall uses massive, polygonal blocks, some weighing up to 60 tons, designed to support the hillside.
• Phases: The Pnyx had three main construction periods: early 5th century B.C., late 5th century B.C., and the mid-4th century B.C..
• Usage: It was the venue for speeches by figures like Pericles and Demosthenes. 

Synonyms and Associated Terms:

• Cyclopean wall (or Cyclopean masonry)
• Polygonal wall
• Retaining wall/terrace wall of the Pnyx
• Megalithic structure of the Assembly hill 

The site is located near the Acropolis on Pnyx Hill and remains a prominent example of ancient Greek civil engineering. ‘

So, it is over 6,000 years old.

Meanwhile, my journey into the distant past continues, as today I ordered copies of:

– ‘Moralia, Volume V: Isis and Osiris. The E at Delphi. The Oracles at Delphi No Longer Given in Verse. The Obsolescence of Oracles’ (Loeb Classical Library 306), by Plutarch.

– ‘Essays’ (Penguin Classics) Paperback, by Plutarch (Author), Ian Kidd (Editor, Introduction), Robin Waterfield (Translator).

– ‘The Rise And Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives: Theseus, Solon, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, with Excerpts from on the Malice of Herodotus’ (Penguin Classics), by Plutarch (Author), John Marincola (Translator), Ian Scott-Kilvert (Translator).

AI – ‘Plato’s Timaeus and Critias are companion dialogues, likely written around 360 BC, that explore cosmology and history. Timaeus provides a detailed, philosophical account of the universe’s creation by a divine craftsman (Demiurge). Critias is an unfinished dialogue presenting the story of Atlantis’s rise and fall, serving as a cautionary tale. Plato’s Timaeus (Cosmology)

• Focus: Explains the formation of the cosmos, the elements (earth, air, fire, water), and the human soul.
• Key Figure: Timaeus of Locri presents a long, detailed monologue.
• Concepts: Introduces the “Demiurge” (creator god) who orders the universe from chaos. It covers the properties of the physical world, the “world soul,” and the golden ratio.
• Purpose: Explores metaphysical ideas, linking the physical world’s structure to the need for virtue and understanding of the universe’s purpose. 

Plato’s Critias (Atlantis Myth)

• Focus: A, largely unfinished, story describing a prehistoric conflict between a noble, ideal Athens and a decadent Atlantis.
• Atlantis Narrative: Describes Atlantis as a massive, prosperous island kingdom founded by Poseidon that grew corrupt and was eventually punished by Zeus.
• Themes: Explores the danger of hubris, the decline of a society due to moral decay, and the contrast between virtue and material luxury.
• Context: The only primary source of the Atlantis legend. 

Contextual Details

• Intended Trilogy: These works were designed to be part of a trilogy—Timaeus, Critias, and an unwritten or lost dialogue called Hermocrates.
• Participants: Features Socrates, Timaeus, and Critias, set after a previous discussion of the ideal state.
• Legacy: Timaeus was the dominant cosmological text in the West for over a thousand years.’

According to Plato’s dialogues Timaeus and Critias, he leared about Atlantis through a chain of transmission. The character Critias claims he heard the story as a child from his grandfather (also named Critias), who in turn heard it from the Athenian statesman Solon. Solon reportedly learned the tale from Egyptian priests in Sais, who claimed it occurred 9,000 years prior. So, the story passed from Egyptian priests to Solon, then to Dropides (Solon’s friend), to Critias the Elder (the grandfather), and finally to Critias the Younger, who tells it to Socrates.

My copy of the Penguin Classic Translation of Plato’s Timaeus and Critias, by Thomas Kjeller Johansen and Desmond Lee, arrived today – 27.01.2026, and will be my bedtime reading over the next few weeks. See also my blog – ‘Is Atlantis based upon an anachronism?’,in which I wrote:

‘Plato presents the story of Atlantis in Timaeus and Critias as a story that was originally told to the Athenian statesman Solon by Egyptian priests, which was then passed down through several generations of Solon’s family orally, before Plato wrote it down. In other words, it appears that the story was transmitted to Plato through a longstanding oral tradition.

‘For most of human history, knowledge was passed down through oral tradition.’ (Leila Amineddoleh, ‘Words Words, Words: Books, Libraries, and the Law’, 28 Chap L. Review, 493 (22025), at 495, citing Patrick D.Nunn, ‘The Oldest True Stories in the Word’ (Oct. 18 2018).

[U]nless the version transmitted to Plato was based upon fiction, i.e. entirely invented, and provided Plato faithfully repeated what he was told, then logically, it is reasonable to conclude that the story of Atlantis is to an unknown extent, based upon fact. That is because ‘Registers’ – sacred or otherwise, typically record facts, including events, and are not designed to serve as literary devices for allegory.

Furthermore, if the story is allegorical, why would Plato make an allegation about the translation of ancient Egyptian records, i.e. about the Egyptian Sacred Registers, because if the originals existed in his time and were accessible the story could be verified, and if not, i.e. if the sacred registers which did once exist were lost, and one day could be found, they would provide documentary evidence either in contradiction or support of what Solon is reported by Plato to have said. Plato died in around 348/347 BC. 590 minus 348 = 242. In other words, Plato did not meet Solon. So, what he is reporting is not based upon contemporaneous first hand witness testimony.

The Sacred Registers have never been found, and copies may exist in undiscovered monuments which today, lie buried under the sands of Egypt.’

I will put up a further post after I have read Plato’s original text (as translated).

I am curious about the details related by Plato of Atlantis itself, and of its location, i.e if Atlantis actually existed.

My Q. to myself is – ‘Do the details in the story fit with the geography?’

My next Q. to AI is – ‘Are the Azores a possible location of Atlantis, i.e. was Atlantis the Azores?

AI – ‘The idea that the Azores archipelago represents the remnants of Atlantis is a popular, albeit scientifically unproven, theory. While it is one of many locations proposed for the legendary lost city, mainstream geology and archaeology do not support the idea that a large continent existed in that region, nor that the Azores are the remnants of such a landmass. 

Here is a breakdown of the arguments for and against the Azores being Atlantis:

Arguments Supporting the Azores Theory

• Geographic Position: Plato’s account in Timaeus and Critias places Atlantis “beyond the Pillars of Hercules” (the Strait of Gibraltar). The Azores are located in the mid-Atlantic, roughly 900 miles west of the Portuguese coast, fitting the general description of an island in that vicinity.
• Volcanic Activity & Submergence: The Azores sit atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a geologically active area formed by the intersection of three tectonic plates (the Azores Triple Junction). Proponents argue that the islands are the mountaintops of a once-larger, submerged landmass that sank during cataclysmic volcanic or tectonic events.
• “Sunken Kingdom” Characteristics: The islands feature hot and cold water springs, fertile soil, and mountainous terrain, which match some of the descriptions given by Plato.
• Proponents & Specific Claims: In 1882, US Congressman Ignatius L. Donnelly popularized the idea in his book Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. More recently, researchers have highlighted potential “pyramid-like” underwater formations and aligned mounds found near the Azores (e.g., near Pico and São Miguel), suggesting they could be pre-Portuguese, man-made structures. 

Arguments Against the Azores Theory

• Geological Evidence: Scientific investigations show the Azores are volcanic islands that formed on the ocean floor and have remained in their current, or even higher, elevation relative to sea level for millions of years. There is no evidence of a large, submerged continent having existed in that area during human history.
• No Substantial Submersion: Core samples from the Azores plateau have shown that the region has been an undersea plateau for millions of years.
• Timing Mismatch: Plato claimed Atlantis sank around 9,600 BC. There is no archaeological evidence of an advanced, “advanced” civilization existing in the mid-Atlantic at that time.
• Interpretation of the Story: Most mainstream scholars consider Plato’s account of Atlantis to be a philosophical allegory regarding the dangers of hubris and empire, rather than a historical or geographical record. 

Conclusion

While the Azores provide a compelling, picturesque, and geographically reasonable location for a “sunken island” theory, the idea that they were Atlantis is considered pseudoscience or speculative fiction by the scientific community, as it lacks concrete geological and archaeological evidence.’

My next Q. is – ‘Have any artefacts ever been found in Europe to support the theory that Atlantis actually existed?’

AI – ‘No, no universally accepted or conclusive archaeological artifacts have ever been found in Europe (or elsewhere) to support the theory that Plato’s Atlantis actually existed as a historical, advanced civilization. 

While various finds have been sensationalized or proposed as evidence of Atlantis, they have either been dismissed by the scientific community, found to be natural formations, or attributed to known, later cultures (such as Minoan Crete). 

Proposals and Supposed Evidence (and Why They Fail):

• Submerged Structures near Spain (Doñana/Cádiz): In 2011, researchers identified ring-shaped, buried structures in marshes near Cádiz, Spain, that some claimed matched Plato’s description. However, these were not verified as Atlantis. Other “circular ruins” found nearby were later identified as experimental ponds for a study on zooplankton.
• Orichalcum Ingots (Sicily): In 2014, divers found 39 ingots of “orichalcum” (a rare metal described by Plato as covering Atlantis’s temples) in a shipwreck off Sicily. Analysis showed the metal was an alloy of copper, zinc, and lead, common in the ancient world, and the shipwreck was from the 6th century BC, thousands of years later than the supposed date of Atlantis.
• “Swedish Atlantis” (Baltic Sea): Discoveries of 10,000-year-old Stone Age tools off the coast of Sweden have beentermed a “Swedish Atlantis” by media, but these are simply underwater settlements from the time when the sea level was lower, not an advanced civilization.
• Sardinia’s Ancient Canals: Some researchers suggest the Sulcis region in Sardinia features sunken concentric canal systems. However, these are generally considered to be related to the Nuragic civilization, not a “lost continent”.
• Thera/Santorini Eruption: The Minoan eruption of Santorini around 1600 BC is a popular theory for the source of the legend, as a thriving civilization was indeed buried. However, this happened over 1,000 years later than Plato’s timeline and in the Mediterranean, not the Atlantic. 

Scientific Consensus:
Most archaeologists and historians consider Atlantis a work of fiction created by the philosopher Plato in 360 B.C. to illustrate his political and ethical theories, not a historical account. While many submerged ruins exist in Europe—such as those in Doggerland or the Mediterranean—they represent known Neolithic or Bronze Age cultures, not the civilization described in the Timaeus and Critias dialogues.’ 

My next Q. – ‘Are any Ancient symbols and Magic purported to be derived from Atlantis?’

AI – ‘Yes, numerous ancient symbols, occult practices, and magical traditions are purported by modern occultists, New Age spiritualists, and alternative history theorists to be derived from the lost civilization of Atlantis. In these, often, Atlanteans are described as having used advanced technology combined with supernatural powers, such as crystal energy, before the civilization’s destruction. 

Purported Atlantean Symbols and Magical Concepts 

• Concentric Circles: Representing the capital city of Atlantis, this motif is believed by some researchers to have been spread worldwide by Atlantean survivors, appearing in ancient Celtic, Native American, and Mediterranean art.
• The “Cross of Atlantis”: Sometimes depicted as a central point with concentric circles, this is identified in some esoteric circles as a symbol for the capital’s structure.
• Snake and Dragon Symbolism: Associated with “enlightenment” or “illumination,” these symbols are claimed to have been used by Atlantean priests, with the knowledge passing to Egypt and South America.
• Atlantean Runes/Ogham: Some esoteric theories suggest that early writing styles, such as Druidic Ogham, Viking Runes, and ancient Hebrew texts, were adapted from a more ancient Atlantean script.
• Crystal Power: A major aspect of Atlantean lore (popularized by psychic Edgar Cayce) is the use of massive crystals for energy, healing, and, eventually, in a corrupt form, that caused the continent’s destruction.
• The Emerald Tablets: Often linked to Thoth, the Atlantean, these tablets are cited in esoteric literature as a source of secret knowledge and alchemy from the sunken continent. 

Origins of these Beliefs

• Theosophy: Helena Blavatsky, founder of Theosophy, claimed in The Secret Doctrine (1888) that Atlanteans were a “root race” with psychic abilities who brought their culture to Egypt and the Americas.
• Edgar Cayce: Known as the “sleeping prophet,” Cayce claimed that through, channeling, he identified many people as reincarnations of Atlanteans, who described advanced “super-science” that blended magic and technology.
• Alternative History: Authors like Ignatius Donnelly (1882) stimulated the belief that all ancient civilization descended from Atlantis, leading to the idea that symbols like the pyramid, the swastika, and the serpent represent Atlantean knowledge. 

Important Context

• Plato’s Fiction: The story of Atlantis originates solely from the Greek philosopher Plato in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias (c. 360 BCE). There is no evidence it was part of any earlier tradition.
• Pseudohistory: While these symbols are popular in occult and New Age circles, they are considered pseudohistory or folklore, rather than established archaeological facts.’ 

My next Q. is – ‘Theoretically, is there a direct link between Alchemy and Atlantis, i.e. the Emerald Tablets?’

AI – ‘Theoretically, yes—a direct link between alchemy and Atlantis exists within esoteric, occult, and New Age literature, primarily mediated through the text known as The Emerald Tablets of Thoth the Atlantean. However, this connection is not supported by academic history, which distinguishes the modern “Tablets” from the classical “Tablet.” 

1. The Direct Link: The Emerald Tablets of Thoth the Atlantean 

This specific text provides the most direct, albeit mythological, link.

• Source: Published in the 1940s/1950s by Maurice Doreal (Claude Doggins), leader of the “Brotherhood of the White Temple”.
• The Narrative: Doreal claimed these were a translation of tablets created by “Thoth,” an Atlantean priest-king who, after the sinking of Atlantis, migrated to Egypt and founded the Egyptian civilization.
• The Connection: The texts discuss Atlantis’s advanced scientific achievements, the construction of the Great Pyramid, and, crucially, secrets of alchemy and transmutation (achieving the Philosopher’s Stone) as an ancient Atlantean science.
• Nature of the Tablets: Described as imperishable, emerald-green tablets created through alchemical, rather than natural, processes. 

2. The Traditional “Emerald Tablet” (Smaragdine Table)

The traditional, historically recognized Emerald Tablet is distinct from the 20th-century “Tablets of Thoth”. 

• Origin: Traced to 7th-9th century Arabic texts (Kitab Balaniyus) and later translated into Latin, this text was considered foundational to Western alchemy.
• Legend: Attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, a blend of the Egyptian god Thoth and Greek god Hermes.
• The Link: While not explicitly mentioning Atlantis in its earliest forms, it is the foundational text for transmutation—the core of alchemy—which esotericists often argue was passed down from a more ancient, lost civilization. 

3. Esoteric & Mythological Connection

In various mystical traditions, the link is established through:

• Thoth as Atlantean: In these narratives, Thoth is not just an Egyptian deity but an “Atlantean priest-king” who preserved the advanced, spiritual-material science of his lost homeland in the form of alchemy.
• The “Above and Below” Principle: The famous phrase “As above, so below” from the Emerald Tablet is used to explain how the macrocosm (universe/Atlantis) is reflected in the microcosm (man/laboratory), linking the spiritual evolution of Atlanteans to the alchemical process.
• The “Halls of Amenti”: The tablets allegedly detail how Thoth hid these secrets under the Great Sphinx, which serves as a repository for Atlantic knowledge. 

Summary Table: Two Different Texts

Feature	Emerald Tablets of Thoth (The Atlantean)	The Emerald Tablet (Smaragdine Table)
Origin	Published 1939-1940s by M. Doreal	7th–9th century Arabic text
Connection to Atlantis	Explicit: Written by Thoth the Atlantean	Implicit: Part of “ancient wisdom”
Content	Narrative + Alchemical Principles	Cryptic Alchemical Recipe/Philosophy
Academic View	Pseudohistorical / Modern New Age	Historical Hermetic Text

In summary, the direct link is found in Doreal’s 20th-century interpretation, which frames alchemy as a legacy of Atlantis preserved by Thoth in the Emerald Tablets.’

My next Q. is – ‘What is the basis of the statistical probability that Atlantis existed is zero?’

AI – ‘The scientific and historical consensus that the statistical probability of Atlantis’s existence is zero is based on the contradiction between Plato’s description and the known realities of geology, oceanography, and archaeology. The story is treated as a philosophical allegory rather than a historical record. Here is the basis for the probability of its existence being considered zero:

• Geological Impossibility: Modern plate tectonics show that the ocean floor does not sink or contract in the manner described, leaving no place for a massive continent to disappear in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
• Absence of Oceanographic Evidence: Despite thorough seafloor mapping and ocean exploration, no evidence of a sunken, advanced continent-sized landmass has ever been found.
• The “Sole Source” Problem: The only records of Atlantis come from the Greek philosopher Plato (around 360 BCE). There are no independent Egyptian records, nor any mention of it in other ancient Greek texts, despite the story claiming it was a massive power that fought ancient Athens.
• Geographical Contradictions: Plato placed Atlantis beyond the “Pillars of Hercules” (the Strait of Gibraltar). However, the description of it being larger than “Libya and Asia together” does not align with any known geographical feature in the Atlantic that could have submerged.
• Misaligned Timeline: Plato claimed the civilization existed 9,000 years before his time (roughly 9600 BCE), which is far too early for the existence of an advanced civilization with sophisticated architecture, metallurgy, and shipping capabilities as described.
• Proven Pedagogical Purpose: Scholars believe Plato created Atlantis as a fictional, idealized, yet morally corrupted state to serve as a foil for his idealized Athens, using the story to illustrate a cautionary tale about political hubris. 

While some scholars speculate that Plato may have loosely based the tale on real, smaller disasters, such as the eruption of Thera (Santorini) in 1600 BCE or the submersion of the city of Helike, the specific, monumental, and, technologically advanced civilization described by Plato is considered a myth.’

The final Q. I pose in the Blog is – ‘As a percentage – To what extent is the basis of the statistical probability that Atlantis existed is zero based upon the belief that The story is treated as a philosophical allegory rather than a historical record.?’

AI – ‘While there is no formal “statistical probability” calculated for the existence of Atlantis, the academic consensus that the story is a philosophical allegory is so dominant that the likelihood of its existence is effectively treated as 0% by mainstream historians and scientists. 

The basis for this “zero probability” rests on several key scholarly findings:

• Philosophical Intent: Most scholars agree that Plato, who first mentioned Atlantis in the dialogues Timaeus and Critias (c. 360 BCE), intended it as a cautionary tale about hubris rather than a historical record.
• Lack of Corroboration: No written records of Atlantis exist outside of Plato’s works, and no traces of such a civilization have been found despite modern advances in ocean-floor mapping.
• Internal Inconsistency: Plato dates Atlantis to 9,000 years before his time (c. 9600 BCE), which is thousands of yearsbefore the earliest known cities or the founding of Athens, the city Atlantis supposedly fought.
• Scientific Disproval: Exploration by oceanographers like Robert Ballard has found no geological evidence of a sunken continent in the Atlantic, confirming that the landmass described by Plato never existed. 

While a small percentage of the public (roughly 57% in some surveys) may believe in Atlantis, and some scholars speculate it could have been inspired by real events like the Thera eruption, they still regard the “Atlantis” described by Plato as a fictional construct. ‘

AI – ‘Esoteric symbolism in Ancient Art refers to the deliberate encoding of hidden, mystical, or “secret” knowledge within visual imagery, designed to be understood only by initiates or those with specialized, non-mainstream knowledge. Rather than purely decorative or literal, this art acts as a vessel for spiritual, metaphysical, and philosophical truths. Key Components of Esoteric Symbolism

• Hidden Meanings: These symbols serve as a “veil” covering deeper, often forbidden, or occult knowledge (alchemy, astrology, hermeticism) that deviates from, or predates, established orthodoxies.
• Sacred Geometry: The use of geometric shapes (circles, triangles, spirals) to represent cosmic and spiritual principles, often seen in the design of temples and monuments, such as in ancient Egypt.
• Ancient Archetypes: Symbols representing universal human experiences, connecting the visible world with the spiritual, divine, or cosmic realm.
• Transformation: Imagery, such as the Ouroboros (serpent consuming its tail), which represents the cycle of life, death, and spiritual rebirth, often used in alchemical contexts.
• Initiatic Knowledge: Symbols used to impart wisdom, such as the Yab-Yum figures in Vajrayana art, which represent the union of compassion and wisdom. 

Purpose and Function

• Spiritual Enlightenment: The art is designed to facilitate inner transformation, self-discovery, and, in some cases, to trigger a mystical, “inner” awakening.
• Conveying the Inexpressible: It communicates complex, metaphysical ideas that are difficult to explain through language alone.
• Protection and Power: In some cultures, images were created as magical tools, such as in Egypt, where statues were placed in tombs to serve as a home for the Ka (spirit) in the afterlife.
• Universal Truths: The symbols often point to a “perennial philosophy”—the idea that a single, underlying, divine truth exists across many cultures and eras. 

Common Examples in Antiquity

• The Circle: Represents eternity, the sun, and the soul.
• The Cross: Often symbolizes the four elements, the cardinal directions, and the physical body.
• The Ouroboros: The snake or dragon eating its own tail, symbolizing self-regeneration and unity.
• The Eye of Providence: Frequently appearing in, or alongside, ancient iconography, representing divine awareness.
• Sphinxes and Androgynes: Glyphs used by esotericists to represent, for example, the union of opposing forces (like male/female, sun/moon).’ 

My next Q. – ‘What was the relationship between Esoteric Symbolism in Art and Magic in Antiquity?’

AI – ‘In antiquity, esoteric symbolism in art was not merely decorative, but functioned as an essential tool of magic, protection, and divine invocation. Art, ranging from amulets and jewelry to tomb paintings and architectural design, was viewed as a “living” medium designed to manipulate reality, connect with the supernatural, or provide magical, apotropaic (evil-averting) protection. 

The relationship was defined by a belief that symbols possessed inherent power to influence unseen forces. 

Core Aspects of the Relationship

• Apotropaic Magic (Protection): Art was used to ward off evil. In Mesopotamia, pendants of the demon Pazuzu were worn to protect against the demoness Lamashtu. In Egypt, the Ouroboros (snake eating its tail) was used as a protective talisman against chaos.
• Active Enchantment: Art was meant to “work” or act. In ancient Egypt, paintings and sculptures were believed to be alive or to provide a home for the spirit, enabling them to maintain order. A ritual, such as standing a mummy upright, would be combined with imagery (like scorpions under a sandal) to symbolically crush negative forces.
• The “Secret” Language: Esoteric art encrypted hidden knowledge, such as alchemical, cosmic, or mystical teachings. Symbols like the Eye of Horus served as a visual language representing both protection and complex mathematical/fractional concepts used in healing.
• Liminal Connections: Magical objects (talismans, amulets) were designed to connect the wearer with the liminal space between the living, the dead, and the gods. 

Key Ancient Traditions

• Ancient Egypt: Art was deeply magical. Jewelry and tomb paintings included the Ankh (symbolizing life), the Eye of Horus (healing), and scarabs, which served as powerful magical aids for the living and the deceased.
• Greco-Roman World: Magic, or magick, was deeply intertwined with daily life, using curse tablets (often featuring strange kharakteres or symbols) and amulets to bind enemies or gain favor.
• Sacred Geometry: Used in Egypt and Greece, geometric shapes (circles, spirals, pyramids) were thought to embody cosmic principles and were used in temples and tombs to evoke divine power. 

Functionality of Symbols

• The Ouroboros: Represented eternity, infinity, and the cyclic nature of life, death, and rebirth.
• The Eye of Horus: A symbol of healing, restoration, and protection.
• The Ankh: Symbolized eternal life.
• Scorpions/Demonic Figures: Used in miniature form to deflect the power of the actual evil. 

In summary, esoteric art in antiquity was a tangible form of magic—a “bricolage” of materials, forms, and myths that allowed individuals to navigate a world believed to be populated by potent spiritual forces.’ 

Today, Dr Jonathan Pugh (of Oxford University), announced that that the DARCA (‘Decision Aid For the Restitution of Cultural Artefacts’) Website is now officially live: https://lnkd.in/evrVzEMc

There is also an accompanying blog post: https://lnkd.in/e4qJx4Kc

‘The decision aid was developed by members of the Uehiro Oxford Institute and the Institute for Art and Law, in collaboration with several external contributors with experience of restitution cases or relevant expertise in ethics or policy-making. The initial interdisciplinary workshop that provided the foundation for this project was funded by the Oxford Policy Engagement Network, and the participation of some members was funded by ANTITHESES: The Discovery Platform for Transformative Inclusivity in Ethics and Humanities Research (grant number 226801).’
(Extract from the ‘About’ page).

I was a member of the Working Group, and would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr Jonathan Pugh of the Uehiro Oxford Institute, and my former Tutor, Alexander Herman of the Institute for Art and Law in London, for listing me as a contributor on the ‘About’ page of the DARCA website.

This is the first online Tool to have ever been developed, to guide ethical decision making in Art Restitution and Repatriation claims.

It is a major contribution in the field of Art Restitution, and I will be featuring it in my forthcoming book about the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes.’

I am attending the launch event at Reuben College Oxford, in March.

Meanwhile, many congratulations to both the Uehiro Oxford Institute at Oxford University, and to the Institute for Art and Law in London, for the launch of this online Tool, which can and will no doubt, be used by Museums and Galleries all over the world, to guide the making of ethical decisions, in these multi-faceted and complex claims, which are more frequent than you might suppose.

Side agreements, which are expressly confidential, allow the Participants to structure bespoke solutions that are more flexible than court orders, often covering matters that go beyond the direct scope of the contested will.

These agreements are crucial in cases where sensitive family dynamics or complex assets require nuanced resolutions that cannot be easily addressed by a judge.

Side Agreements are used to:

(i) To keep sensitive terms private, particularly in high-net-worth estates or where family reputations are involved.

(ii) To create tailored solutions, such as restructuring trusts or managing non-monetary assets.

(iii) To handle issues that go beyond the court’s jurisdiction, including side deals between beneficiaries or specific arrangements for executor/trustee conduct.

(iv) To manage agreements with beneficiaries who have not actively participated in the litigation but need to be bound by the settlement.

(v) In smaller estates, to prevent the escalation of legal costs that would otherwise diminish the estate.

(vi) To preserve relationships, as they offer a more amicable, less adversarial approach to disputes.

Side agreements must be drafted to clearly express the intent to be legally binding and must comply with contract law principles, including of course – consideration.

While the main agreement might be filed with the court, sensitive terms can remain in a confidential side agreement.

These agreements are often drafted late in the day during Mediation to secure the momentum of settlement.

Note that if terms of settlement provide for a new scheme of distribution of the estate assets, that for implementation, a formal Deed of Variation may also be required.

Commercial acumen is crucial in the Mediation of Contentious Probate Disputes, shifting the focus from purely legalistic arguments to practical, financial, and relational outcomes that protect the capital value of the estate.

Since Probate litigation is expensive, time-consuming, and emotionally draining, skilled mediators use commercial awareness to help Participants reach settlements that often exceed or are better than, what they could achieve in court.

A primary goal is to prevent legal fees from consuming the capital value of the estate, i.e. to preserve and protect the capital value of the estate.

Mediators can help Participants to understand that a ‘pragmatic’ settlement is often better than a ‘winner-takes-all’ Trial that leaves everyone with less.

Commercial acumen involves identifying, protecting, or realizing the best value for the estate, even if that means departing from strict, technical legal arguments.

Mediators and legal representatives with commercial expertise can structure settlements that go beyond cash, such as using Deeds of Variation, Trust Restructuring, and side agreements, to meet the financial needs of the beneficiaries, while addressing the underlying family dispute.

Through ‘reality-testing’, Mediators can help the Participants to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their case, in a safe and confidential environment.

They can do this by encouraging the Participants to view the dispute as being a ‘business proposition’, to be managed efficiently, rather than as an ’emotional fight’.

Experienced Mediators, i.e. those who specialise in Wills, Trusts and Probate, understand the Commercial importance of settling disputes, i.e. because of the costs and risks of litigation, which includes the judge.

Mediators shift the focus from ‘past grievances’ to ‘future practical solutions.’

They can challenge ‘unreasonable positions’.

They facilitate communication to overcome emotional, complex issues that would otherwise lead to a breakdown in negotiations.

Mediators with Commercial Acumen are adept at bridging the gap between the emotional, personal nature of probate disputes and the practical, financial realities of estate management.

This approach not only preserves the capital value of the estate assets, but in many cases can also result in the preservation of family relationships.

The image is of my 8th book – the 2nd Edition of the Contentious Probate Handbook, in the window of the world’s oldest legal bookshop in London, Wildy & Sons, in Lincoln’s Inn. The book is the first publication to contain a detailed and comprehensive discussion of Mediation and Mediation Advocacy in Contentious Probate Disputes. It also discusses tax-efficient settlement.

I am currently writing another book for commercial publication in 2026/7 entitled – ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’.

In volunatry Commercial Mediation, the ‘Balance of Convenience’ is a practical, commercial, and, at times, strategic consideration used to determine the timing, format, and structure of the Mediation to ensure that it is effective for both Participants.

It involves assessing the logistical and economic advantages of conducting Mediation against the potential disruption to business, i.e. it is about how to make the Mediation process as efficient, accessible, and least disruptive as possible to the Participants’ business operations.

A balance must be struck between early Mediation (which saves costs but may lack sufficient information), and later Mediation (when Participants may have become entrenched and costs have already escalated).

Mediation offers the convenience of scheduling at a mutually convenient time and place, often using separate, private rooms for each party and a central room for joint sessions.

The process is designed to be a ‘long day’ (often 8-14 hours) to maximize the chance of settlement, weighing the costs of the mediation itself against the far greater expense and risk of litigation.

To minimize disruption, Mediations are often held at a neutral venue or the offices of one of the Participants’ solicitors.

The freedom to agree the scheduling of Mediation, is of course a benefit of Mediation over Litigation, because a judge may impose a rigid Trial Timetable that is not convenient, i.e. which causes disruption to the business operations of one or more of the Participants.

International Law exists to protect the weak from the strong.

In Mediation, the International Rule of Law is therefore a tool for neutralising a power imbalance between the Participants.

That is why bullies fear and despise the International Rule of Law, and seek to dispense with it altogether, by undermining it.

Rogue state actors who are bullies, are therefore the enemies of Civilization. That is because in order to achieve dominance, their aim is to dismantle and destroy the International Legal Order, i.e. World Order built upon Co-Operation between Nations coexisting with each other in Peace.

In other words, rogue state actors who are bullies, and those who ‘pull their strings’, i.e. their financial puppet-masters, are the agents and profiteers of international chaos, war, death and unimaginable human suffering on a potentially global scale.

Cultural Heritage Disputes often involve complex, emotive contests over ownership, restitution, and indigenous rights.

A Mediator can apply the International Rule of Law to create a ‘structured framework’ in order to encourage compliance with ‘Legal Norms’, while facilitating a creative compromise.

Invoking the International Rule of Law, a Mediator can balance competing interests by transforming legal ‘rights’, into ‘interest-focused’ negotiations, that respect – ethical, cultural, and historical contexts. 

In other words, a Mediator can use the International Rule of Law to create a respectful, legally informed, and confidential environment in which the Participants are empowered to reach solutions that balance legal rights with cultural, ethical, and historical realities.

Mediator Strategies include:

(a) Integrating International Legal Frameworks (The ‘Shadow of the Law’).

Rather than ignoring legal complexities, the Mediator uses relevant international conventions (e.g., 1970 UNESCO, 1995 UNIDROIT) as a foundation for negotiation, ensuring the final agreement is grounded in established legal principles regarding illicitly acquired property. 

(b) ‘Shadow of the Law’ Negotiation.

The Mediator uses the ‘shadow of the law’ to bring parties to the table, making them aware of the risks of losing in litigation while encouraging them to find a more tailored, and voluntary solution.

(c) Balancing Public Interest.

The Mediator ensures that the settlement, although private, aligns with the public interest in preserving cultural heritage. 

(ii) Tailoring Solutions to Respect Cultural and Moral Interests.

The International Rule of Law in this context includes recognizing the ‘moral, financial, reputational, and ethical’ concerns that traditional litigation often ignores. 

(iii) Customary Law Incorporation.

Mediators can facilitate the incorporation of indigenous customary laws, protocols, and ethical standards into the Mediation, ensuring that the ‘spirit’ of the law is applied rather than just the letter of property law.

(iv) Creative Compromise.

A Mediator can guide parties towards solutions that go beyond binary ownership, such as:

(a) Shared Ownership/Custodianship – Sharing legal rights over an object.

(b) Long-term Loans – Returning physical possession while acknowledging legal ownership.

(b) Digital/Physical Reproductions – Providing replicas for exhibition while returning the original. 

(v) Upholding Due Process and Procedural Fairness. 

The Mediator ensures that the process itself respects the principles of fairness, impartiality, and equality, which are core tenets of the International Rule of Law. 

(a) Procedural Fairness.

The Mediator maintains a neutral, confidential, and safe environment (often using ‘shuttle diplomacy’) that allows both sides to feel heard and respected.

(b) Informed Consent.

By providing a structured, voluntary process, the Mediator ensures that all participants, including minority groups or indigenous communities, are making informed, uncoerced decisions. 

(vi) Facilitating the joint-devlopment of a ‘New Paradigm of Restitution’. 

Mediators often work to shift the focus from a rigid ‘possession v. ownership’ dispute to a ‘New Paradigm of Restitution’ that fosters future collaboration. 

(a) Reframing Challenges as Opportunities.

The Mediator uses tools like ‘Reframing’ to turn apparent legal constraints (e.g., statute of limitations) into opportunities for creative, non-adversarial settlements.

(b) Future-Focused Solutions.

By focusing on the future rather than purely on historical grievances, the Mediator helps institutions and communities build long-term, positive relationships, such as establishing capacity-building programs in exchange for the return of an object. 

Thus, a Mediator can use the Interntional Rule of Law to create a respectful, legally informed, and confidential environment in which the Participants are empowered to reach solutions that balance ‘legal rights’ with ‘cultural, ethical, and historical realities’.

These Mediator strategies are discussed in my recent Talk on YouTube – ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes.’

Link to the Video Recording of the Talk on YouTube:

“The Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes”

See also the ‘Mediation of Cultural Heritage Disputes’ page at www.carlislam.co.uk.

Notes added:

Two quotations about the dangers of appeasement:

‘We shall not always expect to find them supporting our view. But we shall always hope to find them strongly supporting their own freedom – and to remember that, in the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside.’ (John Fitgerald Kennedy, Inaugural Adress, January 20th 1961).

‘Appeasers believe that if you keep on throwing steaks to a tiger, the tiger will become a vegetarian.’ (Heywood Broun, in Robert Drennan, ed., ‘The Algonquin Wits’).